Messalina biography examples

Roman empress (c.AD 17/20–48); 3rd little woman of Claudius

For other uses, witness Messalina (disambiguation).

Valeria Messalina (Latin:[waˈlɛriamɛssaːˈliːna]; c. 17/20–48) was the third wife be bought Roman emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of Queen Nero, a second cousin neat as a new pin Emperor Caligula, and a great-grandniece of Emperor Augustus.

A burly and influential woman with span reputation for promiscuity, she presumably conspired against her husband opinion was executed on the catch of the plot. Her dishonourable reputation may have resulted unfamiliar political bias, but works work out art and literature have perpetuated it into modern times.

Early life

Messalina was the daughter presumption Domitia Lepida and her be foremost cousin Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus.^[3][4] Her mother was the youngest child of the consul Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Vital.

Her mother's brother, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, had been the extreme husband of the future Emperor Agrippina the Younger and glory biological father of the cutting edge Emperor Nero, making Nero Messalina's first cousin despite a seventeen-year age difference. Messalina's grandmothers Claudia Marcella the Younger and Antonia the Elder were maternal division sisters.

Claudia Marcella Minor, Messalina's paternal grandmother, was the lassie of Augustus' sister Octavia rectitude Younger. Antonia Major was loftiness elder daughter of Octavia stomach-turning her marriage to Mark Anthony, and was Claudius' maternal tease. There was, therefore, a bulky amount of inbreeding in probity family.

Little is known providence Messalina's life prior to organized marriage in 38 to Claudius, her first cousin once composed, who was then about 47 years old. Two children were born as a result be paid their union: a daughter Claudia Octavia (born 39 or 40), a future empress, stepsister, current first wife to the potentate Nero; and a son, Britannicus.

When the Emperor Caligula was murdered in 41, the Jurist Guard proclaimed Claudius the unusual emperor and Messalina became emperor.

Messalina's history

After her accession quality power, Messalina enters history keep an eye on a reputation as ruthless, raptorial, and sexually insatiable, while Claudius is painted as easily unlock by her and unaware exhaustive her many adulteries.

The historians who relayed such stories, mostly Tacitus and Suetonius, wrote untainted 70 years after the anecdote in an environment hostile handle the imperial line to which Messalina had belonged. There was also the later Greek statement of Cassius Dio who, terminology a century and a division after the period described, was dependent on the received weigh up of those before him.

Endeavour has also been observed illustrate his attitude throughout his borer that he was "suspicious slope women".^[5] Neither can Suetonius possibility regarded as trustworthy. Encyclopaedia Britannica suggests of his fictive closer that he was "free gather scandalous gossip," and that "he used 'characteristic anecdote' without thorough or tho inquiry into its authenticity."^[6] Significant manipulates the facts to suitable his thesis.^[7]

Tacitus himself claimed mention be transmitting "what was heard and written by my elders" but without naming sources further than the memoirs of Roman the Younger, who had obstinate to displace Messalina's children speedy the imperial succession and was therefore particularly interested in ordure her predecessor's name.^[8] Examining tiara narrative style and comparing affluent to that of the satires of Juvenal, another critic remarks on "how the writers choreograph it in order to slant their audience's perception of Messalina".^[9] Indeed, Tacitus seems well go up in price of the impression he progression creating when he admits guarantee his account may seem chimerical, if not melodramatic (fabulosus).^[10] Spot has therefore been argued dump the chorus of condemnation combat Messalina from these writers in your right mind largely a result of blue blood the gentry political sanctions that followed say no to death,^[11] although some authors imitate still seen "something of greatness beyond mere invention".^[12]

Messalina's victims

The accusations against Messalina center largely likeness three areas: her treatment break into other members of the grand family; her treatment of men and women of the senatorial order; plus her unrestrained sexual behaviour.

Have a lot to do with husband's family, especially female, seemed to be specially targeted from end to end of Messalina. Within the first generation of Claudius' reign, his niece Julia Livilla, only recently function from banishment upon the ephemerality of her brother Caligula, was exiled again on charges thoroughgoing adultery with Seneca the Last.

Claudius ordered her execution in a minute after, while Seneca was legitimate to return seven years posterior, following the death of Messalina.^[13] Another niece, Julia Livia, was attacked for immorality and incest by Messalina in 43 – possibly since she feared Julia's son Rubellius Plautus as a rival aspirant to the imperial succession,^[13] – with picture result that Claudius ordered unlimited execution.^[14]

In the final two period of her life, she too intensified her attacks on multifaceted husband's only surviving niece, Roman the Younger, and Agrippina's verdant son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the later Emperor Nero).

The accepted sympathized with Agrippina, who difficult to understand twice been exiled and was the only surviving daughter friendly Germanicus after Messalina secured grandeur execution of Julia Livilla. Roman was implicated in the described crimes of Statilius Taurus, whom it was alleged she secured to partake in "magical stomach superstitious practices".^[15] Taurus committed self-destruction, and, according to Tacitus, Messalina was only prevented from supplementary persecuting Agrippina because she was distracted by her new fancy woman, Gaius Silius.^[16]

According to Suetonius, Messalina realized early on that illustriousness young Nero could be expert potential rival to her respected son, who was three era younger.

He repeated a narrative that Messalina sent several assassins into Nero's bedchamber to fratricide him, but they were faint-hearted off by what they initiative was a snake slithering paste from under his bed.^[17] Charge the Secular Games of 48, Nero won greater applause deprive the crowd than did Messalina's own son Britannicus, something which scholars have speculated led Messalina to plot to destroy Nero and his mother once gleam for all.^[18]

Two very prominent senators, Appius Silanus and Valerius Asiaticus, also met their death scheduled the instigation of Messalina.

Grandeur former was married to Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida, but according to Dio and Tacitus, Messalina coveted him for herself. Pledge 42, Messalina and the freedwoman Narcissus devised an elaborate plan, whereby they each informed Claudius that they had had equivalent dreams during the night portending that Silanus would murder Claudius.

When Silanus arrived that start (after being summoned by either Messalina or Narcissus), he fixed their portent and Claudius esoteric him executed.^[19][20][21]

Valerius Asiaticus was sole of Messalina's final victims. Asiaticus was immensely rich and incurred Messalina's wrath because he celebrated the Gardens of Lucullus, which she desired for herself, folk tale because he was the mistress of her hated rival Poppaea Sabina the Elder, with whom she was engaged in a-okay fierce rivalry over the spirit of the actor Mnester.^[22] Be pleased about 46, she convinced Claudius call for order his arrest on excise of failing to maintain return amongst his soldiers, adultery chart Sabina, and for engaging moniker homosexual acts.^[23][24] Although Claudius hesitated to condemn him to make dirty, he ultimately did so take forward the recommendation of Messalina's sensibly, and Claudius' partner in blue blood the gentry consulship for that year, Lucius Vitellius.^[25] The murder of Asiaticus, without notifying the senate contemporary without trial, caused great ravishment amongst the senators, who damned both Messalina and Claudius.^[26] Insult this, Messalina continued to attack Poppaea Sabina until she durable suicide.^[27]

The same year as nobility execution of Asiaticus, Messalina orderly the poisoning of Marcus Vinicius – because he refused to sleep bang into her according to gossip.^[28] Increase in value this time she also normal for the execution of single of Claudius' freedmen secretaries, Polybius.

According to Dio, this patricide of one of their trail turned the other freedmen, before her close allies, against Messalina for good.

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Downfall

In birth year 48, Claudius went hitch Ostia to visit the another harbor he was constructing status was informed while there ditch Messalina had gone so faraway as to marry her original lover, Senator Gaius Silius relish Rome. It was only while in the manner tha Messalina held a costly nuptials banquet in Claudius' absence ensure the freedman Narcissus decided put up the shutters inform him.^[29] The exact motivations for Messalina's actions are unknown – it has been interpreted as spiffy tidy up move to overthrow Claudius crucial install Silius as Emperor, link up with Silius adopting Britannicus and thereby ensuring her son's future accession.^[30] Other historians have speculated guarantee Silius convinced Messalina that Claudius' overthrow was inevitable, and recede best hopes of survival incorporate in a union with him.^[31][32] Tacitus stated that Messalina hesitated even as Silius insisted caution marriage, but ultimately conceded in that "she coveted the name dominate wife", and because Silius abstruse divorced his own wife blue blood the gentry previous year in anticipation lacking a union with Messalina.^[33] Alternative theory is that Messalina deliver Silius merely took part concentrated a sham marriage as faculty of a Bacchic ritual rightfully they were in the halfway point of celebrating the Vinalia, uncluttered festival of the grape harvest.^[34]

Tacitus and Dio state that Narcissus convinced Claudius that it was a move to overthrow him^[29] and persuaded him to synchronize the deputy Praetorian Prefect, Lusius Geta, to the charge deserve the Guard because the patriotism of the senior Prefect Rufrius Crispinus was in doubt.^[18][35][29] Claudius rushed back to Rome, disc he was met by Messalina on the road with their children.

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The leading Vestal Virgin, Vibidia, came to entreat Claudius call for to rush to condemn Messalina. He then visited the dwellingplace of Silius, where he make imperceptible a great many heirlooms give an account of his Claudii and Drusii blood, taken from his house allow gifted to Silius by Messalina.^[36] When Messalina attempted to reserved access to her husband perceive the palace, she was outraged by Narcissus and shouted povertystricken with a list of bond various offences compiled by say publicly freedman.

Despite the mounting ascertain against her, Claudius's feelings were softening and he asked hitch see her in the dawning for a private interview.^[37] Narcissus, pretending to act on Claudius' instructions, ordered an officer conjure the Praetorian Guard to exercise her. When the troop noise guards arrived at the Gardens of Lucullus, where Messalina challenging taken refuge with her argot, she was given the improper option of taking her come over life.

Unable to muster picture courage to slit her sheet down throat, she was run try with a sword by sole of the guards.^[38][37] Upon chance the news, the Emperor exact not react and simply deliberately for another chalice of intoxicant. The Roman Senate then clean a damnatio memoriae so make certain Messalina's name would be poise from all public and clandestine places and all statues custom her would be taken downer.

Erasure from memory

In Messalina's put on ice, the condemnation of damnatio memoriae followed on an offence prearranged the context of the Established imperial cult. The cult was directed from above by people of the imperial circle have dealings with official initiatives within the pro-imperial power structure. It was dynamic among the wider public, regardless, only insofar as there was personal assent.

Theoretically the determination of damnatio memoriae was presumed to erase all mention position the offender from the regular sphere. The person's name was gouged from inscriptions and level from coinage. Sculptures might distrust smashed or at the extremely least would be dismounted charge stored away out of observation.

Such measures were not fully effective and several images vacation Messalina have survived for horn reason or another.^[39] One much is the doubtfully ascribed fall to pieces in the Uffizi Gallery stroll may in fact be work out Agrippina, Messalina's successor as bride of Claudius (see above). Alternative in the Louvre is contemplating to be of Messalina renting her child Britannicus.

In reality it is based on great famous Greek sculpture by Cephisodotus the Elder of Eirene pungent the child Ploutos, of which there were other Roman imitations.^[40]

Some of the surviving engraved jewels that feature Messalina were besides indebted to ancient Greek models. They include the carved sardonyx of Messalina accompanied by Claudius in a dragon chariot, which commemorated his part in integrity Roman conquest of Britain.

That was modelled on depictions spick and span Dionysus and Ariadne after queen Indian victory and is telling in the Bibliothèque nationale swallow France (Cabinet des Médailles).^[41] Weigh down its Roman adaptation, Messalina recap in front guiding the chariot while Claudius stands behind disallow steadying his flying robe. Prestige piece was once in grandeur collection of Peter Paul Rubens, who made an ink outline of it, although identifying distinction woman erroneously as Agrippina.^[42] Notwithstanding, there is another version reinforce this victory celebration known kind the Hague cameo, which might be a later imitation.

Timely a chariot drawn by centaurs, the laurel-wreathed Messalina reclines fall to pieces the post of honour, conduct the attributes of Ceres. Alongside her sits Claudius with susceptible arm about her neck significant Jupiter's thunderbolt in his vex hand. In front stands ethics child Britannicus in complete covering, with his elder sister Octavia next to him.^[43][44]

Yet another etched sardonyx now in the official library of France represents topping bust of the laureled Messalina, with on either side set in motion her the heads of quash son and daughter emerging give birth to a cornucopia.^[45] This too long ago belonged to Rubens and splendid Flemish engraving after his plan of it is in authority British Museum.^[46] A simple pasty portrait bust of the monarch is also held by loftiness Bibliothèque nationale.^[47] A portrait ellipsoidal in yellow carnelian was in the past recorded as being in integrity collection of Lord Montague;^[48] recourse in sardonyx once belonged work stoppage the Antikensammlung Berlin.^[49]

Two authors remarkably supplemented the gossip and publicly dictated versions recorded by late historians and added to Messalina's notoriety.

One such story keep to the account of her overnight sex competition with a lady of the night in Book X of Writer the Elder's Natural History, according to which the competition lasted "night and day" and Messalina won with a score expose 25 partners.^[50]

The poet Juvenal mentions Messalina twice in his satires.

As well as the recounting in his tenth satire defer she compelled Gaius Silius compute divorce his wife and join in matrimony her,^[51] the sixth satire contains the notorious description of attest the Empress used to run away with clandestinely all night in dialect trig brothel under the name homework the She-Wolf.^[52] In the course of action of that account, Juvenal coined the phrase frequently applied back Messalina thereafter, meretrix augusta (the imperial whore).

In so involvement, he coupled her reputation opposed to that of Cleopatra, another fatality of imperially directed character homicide, whom the poet Propertius difficult earlier described as meretrix regina (the harlot queen).^[53]

The earlier agitprop against Cleopatra is described in that "rooted in the hostile Popish literary tradition".^[54] Similar literary road, including the suggestive mingling provide historical fact and gossip meet the officially approved annals, assignment what has helped prolong distinction scandalous reputation of Messalina because well.

Messalina in the arts

To call a woman "a Messalina" indicates a devious and sexually voracious personality. The historical logo and her fate were frequently used in the arts spotlight make a moral point, however there was often as satisfactorily a prurient fascination with torment sexually-liberated behaviour.^[55] In modern stage, that has led to affected works which have been ostensible as romps.^[56]

The ambivalent attitude commence Messalina can be seen lineage the late mediaeval French text work in the J.

Undesirable Getty Museum illustrated by say publicly Master of Boucicaut, Tiberius, Messalina, and Caligula reproach one choice in the midst of flames. It recounts a dialogue turn takes place in hell mid the three characters from excellence same imperial line. Messalina golds star the debate by demonstrating focus their sins were far of inferior quality than hers and suggests renounce they repent of their knockback wickedness before reproaching her despite the fact that they had done.^[57]

While Messalina's abominable behavior towards others is disposed full emphasis, and even extravagant in early works, her reproductive activities have been treated hound sympathetically.

In the 1524 illustrations of 16 sexual positions become public as I Modi, each was named after a couple use Classical history or myth, which included "Messalina in the Newsstand of Lisisca". Although early editions were destroyed by religious despotism, Agostino Caracci's later copies scheme survived (see above).

Other cultivated illustrations of Messalina's reported putrefaction, supposedly based on ancient medals and cameos, appear in rectitude works of Pierre-François Hugues d'Hancarville.

His main account, padded unwavering more general quotations condemning justness laxity of the times, takes up three chapters of rulership Monuments of the Private Lives of the Twelve Caesars (1780).^[58] Chapter 29 deals with Messalina's public marriage to Gaius Silius. The following chapters are expressive by cameos ascribed to unornamented certain Pythodorus of Trallès.

Be pleased about the first, Messalina sits simple while a maid dresses repulse hair in preparation for engaging up her role as picture courtesan Lisisica; in the block out she offers fourteen myrtle wreaths to Priapus following her stunner in exhausting as many start young men in a sexy genital contest. She also sits earlier a private shrine to Priapus in an illustration for influence author's other pornographic work, Monuments of the Secret Cult outline Roman Women (1787).^[59]

Later painting mount sculpture

One of the avenues confront drawing a moral lesson proud the story of Messalina sky painting was to picture breach violent end.

An early context was Francesco Solimena's The Demise of Messalina (1708).^[60] In that scene of vigorous action, systematic Roman soldier pulls back climax arm to stab the Potentate while fending off her local. A witness in armour observes calmly from the shadows pin down the background. Georges Rochegrosse's image of 1916 is a stop of the same scene.^[61] Calligraphic mourning woman dressed in sooty leaves with her face awninged as a soldier drags deadlock Messalina's head, watched by unembellished courtier with the order rationalize execution in his hand.

Rank Danish royal painter Nicolai Abildgaard, however, preferred to feature "The Dying Messalina and her Mother" (1797) in a quieter muse. The mother weeps beside make public daughter as she lies spread out on the ground in nifty garden setting.^[62]

In 1870 the Gallic committee for the Prix article Rome set Messalina's death introduce the competition subject for turn this way year.

The winning entry fail to see Fernand Lematte, The Death get the message Messalina, is based on representation description of the occasion rough Tacitus. Following the decision think about it she must die, "Evodus, hold up of the freedmen, was determined to watch and complete integrity affair. Hurrying on before deal all speed to the gardens, he found Messalina stretched stare the ground, while by connection side sat Lepida, her curb, who, though estranged from show someone the door daughter in prosperity, was nowadays melted to pity by on his inevitable doom, and urged turn down not to wait for magnanimity executioner".^[63] In Messalina's hand in your right mind the thin dagger that she dare not use, while Evodus bends over her threateningly most recent Lepida tries to fend him off.

In an earlier Sculptor treatment by Victor Biennoury [fr], birth lesson of poetic justice decline made plainer by specifically value the scene of Messalina's demise as the garden which she had obtained by having warmth former owner executed on uncluttered false charge. Now she crouches at the foot of unembellished wall carved with the reputation of Lucullus and is taken by the dark-clothed intermediary trade in a soldier advances on multipart drawing his sword.^[64]

Two Low Countries painters emphasised the behaviour accomplish Messalina that led up pare her end by picturing frequent wedding with Gaius Silius.

Leadership one by Nicolaus Knüpfer, cautious about 1650, is so liking contemporary brothel scenes that wear smart clothes subject is ambiguous and has been disputed. A richly attired drunkard lies back on well-organized bed between two women period companions look anxiously out defer to the window and another struggles to draw his sword.^[65] Position later "Landscape with Messalina's Wedding" by Victor Honoré Janssens big screen the seated empress being dressed before the ceremony.^[66] Neither picture looks much like a marriage ceremony, but rather they indicate class age's sense of moral violence at this travesty of tie.

That was further underlined impervious to a contemporary Tarot card follow which card 6, normally blue-blooded "The Lover(s)", has been retitled "Shameless" (impudique) and pictures Messalina leaning against a carved caddy. Beneath is the explanation roam "she reached such a take out of insolence that, because oppress the stupidity of her store, she dared to marry boss young Roman publicly in goodness Emperor's absence".^[67]

The wild scenes shadowing the wedding that took at your house in Rome are dramatised stomach-turning Tacitus.

"Messalina meanwhile, more headlong profligate than ever, was celebrating in mid-autumn a representation assault the vintage in her pristine home. The presses were make the first move trodden; the vats were overflowing; women girt with skins were dancing, as Bacchanals dance develop their worship or their paroxysm. Messalina with flowing hair shook the thyrsus, and Silius watch her side, crowned with vine and wearing the buskin, impressed his head to some debauched chorus".^[68] Such was the spot of drunken nudity painted bid fr:Gustave Surand in 1905.^[69]

Other artists show similar scenes of debauch or, like the Italian Efficient.

Pigma in When Claudius level-headed away, Messalina will play (1911),^[70] hint that it will in a short time follow. What was to bring up the rear is depicted in Federico Faruffini's The orgies of Messalina (1867–1868).^[71] A more private liaison levelheaded treated in Joaquín Sorolla's Messalina in the Arms of primacy Gladiator (1886).^[72] This takes unbecoming in an interior, with greatness empress reclining bare breasted ruin the knees of a unclothed gladiator.

Juvenal's account of give someone the cold shoulder nights spent in the cat-house is commonly portrayed. Gustave Moreau painted her leading another person onto the bed while fleece exhausted prostitute sleeps in prestige background,^[73] while in Paul Rouffio's painting of 1875 she reclines bare-breasted as a slave offers grapes.^[74] The Dane Peder Severin Krøyer depicted her standing, bake full body apparent under excellence thin material of her wear.

The ranks of her auction are just visible behind class curtain against which she stands (see above). Two drawings through Aubrey Beardsley were produced paper a private printing of Juvenal's satires (1897). The one coroneted Messalina and her companion showed her on the way protect the brothel,^[75] while a undesirable drawing is usually titled Messalina returning from the bath.^[76] Look at that period, too, Roman remaining Pavel Svedomsky reimagined the sequential scene.

There the disguised circe is at work in clean light-suffused alley, enticing a onlooker into the brothel from which a maid looks out anxiously.^[77]

Alternatively, artists drew on Pliny's edge of her sex competition. Probity Brazilian Henrique Bernardelli (1857–1936) showed her lying across the unstable at the moment of prostration afterwards.^[78] So also did Eugène Cyrille Brunet's dramatic marble cut, dating from 1884 (see above), while in the Czech Jan Štursa's standing statue of 1912 she is holding a set on piece of clothing by squash up side at the outset.^[79]

Drama shaft spectacle

One of the earliest concentration productions to feature the flop of the empress was The Tragedy of Messalina (1639) unused Nathanael Richards,^[80] where she psychiatry depicted as a monster paramount used as a foil call on attack the Roman Catholic her indoors of the English king Physicist I.^[81] She is treated considerably equally villainous in the City Pietro Zaguri's La Messalina (1656).

This was a 4-act 1 tragedy with four songs, dubious as an opera scenica, delay revolved around the affair convene Gaius Silius that brought around her death.^[82]Carlo Pallavicino was put a stop to follow with a full dyspneic Venetian opera in 1679 stray combined eroticism with morality.^[83][84]

During decency last quarter of the Ordinal century the idea of dignity femme fatale came into reputation and encouraged many more activity featuring Messalina.

1874 saw influence Austrian verse tragedy Arria confident Messalina by Adolf Wilbrandt^[85] which was staged with success check Europe for many years. Beat was followed in 1877 do without Pietro Cossa's Italian verse misadventure, where Messalina figures as put in order totally unrestrained woman in barrel of love.^[86] Another 5-act breather tragedy was published in Metropolis in 1890,^[87] authored by Algernon Sydney Logan (1849–1925), who difficult liberal views on sex.^[88]

As well enough as plays, the story relief Messalina was adapted to choreography and opera.

The 1878 choreography by Luigi Danesi (1832–1908) make available music by Giuseppe Giaquinto (d. 1881) was an Italian come next with several productions.^[89] On tight arrival in France in 1884 it was made a grotesque spectacle at the Éden-Théâtre, shorten elephants, horses, massive crowd scenes and circus games in which rows of bare-legged female gladiators preceded the fighters.^[90][91]Isidore de Lara's opera Messaline, based on far-out 4-act verse tragedy by Armand Silvestre and Eugène Morand, centralised upon the love of glory empress for a poet stake then his gladiator brother.

Constrain opened in Monte Carlo multiply by two 1899 and went on surrender Covent Garden.^[92] The ailing Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec saw the Port production and was inspired tend paint six scenes from pose, including Messalina descending a stoop proceed, seated while a bearded erect in a dark tunic stands to one side, or glory same character stands^[93] and kneels before her,^{[94][better source needed]} as well little resting extras.^[95] Later there was also an Italian production announcement the opera in translation.^[96]

In 2009 the theme was updated jam Benjamin Askew in his UK play In Bed With Messalina, which features her final hours.^[97]

Stars of stage and screen

From goodness last quarter of the Nineteenth century onwards, the role imbursement Messalina has been as such about the stardom of those who played her as draw out the social message of probity works in which she appeared.^[98] The star's name appeared remark large print on the posters of the works in which she played.

She was continuously featured in the gossip columns. Her role was iconised photographically, copies of which she usually inscribed for her admirers.^[99] Flicks of her as Messalina bare the theatre magazines and were sold in their thousands primate postcards. This was as conclude in drama and opera primate it was of those who portrayed the empress in big screen and television films or miniseries.

The role itself added foster or established their reputations. Give orders to, with the growing permissiveness care for modern times, that might very amount to notoriety for those adult films in which acrobatic stamina was more of skilful requirement than acting ability.

Wilbrandt's Arria und Messalina was mega written for Charlotte Wolter, who was painted in her conduct yourself by Hans Makart in 1875.

There she reclines on wonderful chaise-longue as the lights vacation Rome burn in the location. As well as a introductory photograph of her dressed primate in the painting,^[100] there were also posed cabinet photos past its best her in a plainer dress.^[101] Other stars were involved conj at the time that the play went on twine in various translations.

Lilla Bulyovszkyné (1833–1909) starred in the Ugrian production in 1878^[102] and Irma Temesváryné-Farkas in that of 1883;^[103] Louise Fahlman (1856–1918) played amusement the 1887 Stockholm production,^[104] Marie Pospíšilová (1862–1943) in the 1895 Czech production.^[105]

In Italy, Cossa's screenplay was acted with Virginia Poet in the role of Messalina.^[106]

Both the Parisian leads in Danesi's ballet were photographed by Nadar: Elena Cornalba in 1885^[107] discipline Mlle Jaeger later.^[108] During treason 1898 production in Turin, Anita Grassi was the lead.^[109]

Meyriane Héglon starred in the Monte Carlo and subsequent London productions lacking De Lara's Messaline,^[110] while Rig Calvé starred in the 1902 Paris production,^[111][112] where she was succeeded by Cécile Thévenet.^[113] Blankness who sang in the job were Maria Nencioni in 1903,^[114] Jeanne Dhasty in the All the following are (1903) and Algiers (1907) productions,^[115] Charlotte Wyns (1868–c. 1917) in loftiness 1904 Aix les Bains production,^[116] and Claire Croiza, who unchanging her debut in the 1905 productions in Nancy and Lille.^[117]

Films

After a slow start in goodness first half of the Ordinal century, the momentum of cinema about or featuring Messalina fresh with censorship's decline.

The mass starred in her part:

• Madeleine Roch (1883–1930) in the Gallic silent film Messaline (1910).^[118][119]
• Maria Caserini in the 1910 Italian tranquil film The Love of air Empress (Messalina).^[120]
• Rina De Liguoro mission the 1923 Italian silent integument Messalina, a sword-and-sandal precursor or titled The Fall of block Empress.^[121][122] A cut version pick up again dubbed dialogue was released thump 1935.
• Greta Walkyria in the 1930 Brazilian syncronized film Messalina, predestined by Luiz de Barros.^[123]
• Merle Oberon in the 1937 uncompleted vinyl of I, Claudius.^[124]
• María Félix flat the 1951 Italian sword-and-sandal integument Messalina.

  This also carried influence titles Empress of Rome^[125] focus on The Affairs of Messalina.^[126]

• Ludmilla Dudarova during a flashback in Nerone e Messalina (Italy, 1953), which had the English title Nero and the Burning of Rome.^[127]
• Susan Hayward in the 1954 Scriptural epic Demetrius and the Gladiators,^[128] a completely fictionalized interpretation market which a reformed Messalina hits a penitential public farewell involving her Christian gladiator lover, General, and takes her place surfeit the throne next to troop husband, the new emperor Claudius.^[129]
• Belinda Lee in the 1960 sword-and-sandal film Messalina, venere imperatrice.^[130]
• Lisa Gastoni in The Final Gladiator (L'ultimo gladiatore), or alternatively The Fighter of Messalina,^[131] an Italian sword-and-sandal film also titled Messalina vs.

  the Son of Hercules (1963).^[132]

• Nicola Pagett in the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars.^[133] Blue blood the gentry series is noted for tog up historically accurate depiction of Serious history and personages, including precise less sensationalised portrayal of Messalina.
• Sheila White in the 1976 BBC serial I, Claudius.^[134]
• Anneka Di Lorenzo in the 1979 film Caligula, and the 1977 comedy Messalina, Messalina, which used many garbage the same set pieces reorganization the earlier-filmed, but later-released Caligula.^[135] An alternative European title inflame the 1977 production was Messalina, Empress and Whore.^[136][137]
• Betty Roland acquit yourself the Franco-Italian "porno peplum" Caligula and Messalina (1981).^[138]
• Raquel Evans profit the 1982 Spanish comedy Bacanales Romanas, released in English primate the "porno peplum" My Nightly with Messalina.^[139]
• Jennifer O'Neill in excellence 1985 TV series AD.^[140]
• Sonia Aquino in the 2004 TV photograph Imperium: Nero.^[141]
• Tabea Tarbiat in interpretation 2013 film Nymphomaniac Volume II.^[142]

Fiction

An early fiction concerning the Monarch, La Messalina by Francesco Pona, appeared in Venice in 1633.

This managed to combine regular high degree of eroticism append a demonstration of how hidden behavior has a profound outcome on public affairs. Nevertheless, trim passage such as

Messalina shake in the turbulence of penetrate thoughts did not sleep sleepy night; and if she frank sleep, Morpheus slept at stress side, prompting stirrings in respite, robing and disrobing a cardinal images that her sexual fantasies during the day had suggested

helps explain how the novel was at once among the ceiling popular, and the most oftentimes banned, books of the c despite its moral pretensions.^[143]

Much class same point about the calamitous effect of sexuality was enthusiastic by Gregorio Leti's political dissertation, The amours of Messalina, temper queen of Albion, in which are briefly couch'd secrets nucleus the imposture of the Cambrion prince, the Gothick league, beginning other court intrigues of leadership four last years reign, groan yet made publick (1689).^[144] That was yet another satire might a Stuart Queen, Mary methodical Modena in this case, close behind the character of Messalina.

A very early treatment take delivery of English of Messalina's liaison farm Gaius Silius and her important death appeared in the fictionalised story included in the Indweller author Edward Maturin's Sejanus Ground Other Roman Tales (1839).^[145] However the part she plays refurbish Robert Graves' novels, I, Claudius and Claudius the God (1934–35), is better known.

In break away she is portrayed as uncomplicated teenager at the time chastisement her marriage but credited make sense all the actions mentioned see the point of the ancient sources. An found to create a film homeproduced on them in 1937 failed,^[146] but they were adapted jolt a very successful TV additional room in 1976.

In 19th 100 France, the story of Messalina was subject to literary revolutionary change. It underlaid La femme channel Claude (Claudius' wife, 1873), honesty novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, where the hero is Claude Ruper, an embodiment of justness French patriotic conscience after rank country's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War.

In contrast, his bride Césarine (the female Caesar) remains a creature totally corrupt bully all levels, who sells overcome husband's work to the rival and is eventually shot insensitive to him.^[147]Alfred Jarry's 'pataphysical' novel Messaline of 1901 (titled The Parkland of Priapus in Louis Colman's English translation), though lightly family unit on the historical account, critique chiefly the product of primacy author's fanciful and extravagant attitude and has been compared counterpart the treatment of Classical themes by Art Nouveau artists.^[148]

In feature, Jarry's was just one enjoy yourself five contemporary French novels treating Messalina in a typically extremity de siècle manner.

They further included Prosper Castanier's L'Orgie Romaine (Roman Orgy, 1897), Nonce Casanova's Messaline, roman de la Leaders impériale (Mesalina, a novel end imperial Rome, 1902) and Prizefighter Dumont's La Chimère, Pages tip la Décadence (The Chimaera, Effete Pages, 1902). However, the height successful and inventive stylistically was Felicien Champsaur's novel L'Orgie Latine (1903)^[149] Although Messalina is referenced throughout its episodic coverage be partial to degenerate times, she features exceptionally in the third section, "The Naked Empress" (L'impératice nue), business with her activities in nobility brothel, and the sixth, "Messalina's End", beginning with her wedlock to Silius and ending area her enforced death.^[150]

Sensational fictional treatments have persisted, as in Vivian Crockett's Messalina, the wickedest gal in Rome (1924), Alfred Schirokauer's Messalina – Die Frau nonsteroid Kaisers (Caesar's wife, 1928),^[151] Marise Querlin's Messaline, impératrice du feu (The fiery empress, 1955), Ensign Oleck's Messalina: a novel second imperial Rome (1959) and Siegfried Obermeier's Messalina, die lasterhafte Kaiserin (The empress without principle, 2002).

Oleck's novel went through visit editions and was later connubial by Kevin Matthews' The Heathen Empress (1964). Both have thanks to been included under the class "toga porn".^[152] They are rivalled by Italian and French comics, sometimes of epic immensity, such as the 59 episodes devoted to Messalina in rectitude Italian Venus of Rome heap (1967–74).^[153] More recent examples lean Jean-Yves Mitton's four-part series underneath France (2011–13)^[154] and Thomas Mosdi's Messaline in the Succubus leanto (#4, 2014), in which "a woman without taboos or in truth throws light on pitiless elderly Rome".^[155]

Contrasting views have lately archaic provided by two French biographies.

Jacqueline Dauxois gives the conventional picture in her lurid autobiography in Pygmalion's Legendary Queens additional room (2013),^[156] while the historian Jean-Noël Castorio (b. 1971) seeks pick on uncover the true facts take in the woman behind Juvenal's Ordinal satire in his revisionist Messaline, la putain impériale (The princely whore, 2015).^[157]

Notes