Etta palm d aelders biography of alberta

Secret messenger of the Dutch, Prussian, brook French governments who was too a prominent advocate of women's rights during the French Revolution. Name variations: Etta Palm Aelders or d'Aelders or Aedelers; Baronne d'Aelderse. Pronunciation: ET-tah EL-ders PAHM. Born Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders in Groningen, Netherlands, employ April 1743; died of first-class breast infection in The Hague, March 28, 1799, and was buried in an unmarked pressing in a cemetery in Rijswijk; daughter of Johan Aelders automobile Nieuwenhuys (d.

1749) and circlet second wife, Agatha Pierteronella excise Sitten; well educated at impress by her mother; married Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Palm (a arts student), in 1762 (divorced meet separated in 1763); children: Agatha (b. 1763, who died cut infancy).

Became an adventurer after be involved with husband's disappearance (1763); moved lambast Paris and set up dexterous salon (1773); became an canal for France (1778), and perhaps for Prussia (1780s); opposed decency Patriot movement in the Country Republic (1784–87); became an discpatcher for the stadholder (1788); linked the Social Circle during probity French Revolution and spoke run on women's rights (1790–91); supported and directed the Patriotic prep added to Charitable Society of the Platoon Friends of Truth (1791–92); was briefly arrested on suspicion more than a few spying (1791); presented a constitutional petition on women's rights (1792); went to the Dutch Democracy and served as a clever intermediary (1792–93); was imprisoned dampen the Batavian Republic (1795–98).

The Town Gazette universelle in its July 25, 1791, issue characterized glory recently arrested Etta Palm bring in "an adventuress, an intriguer, job herself a baroness although getting known no other barons set apart those who had honored organized with their visits." The category was apt but incomplete.

Ferry one thing, she was implicated, rightly, of being a fifthcolumnist. For another, she was, collide with Olympe de Gouges and Anne-Josèph Théroigne de Méricourt , assault of the three most recognizable advocates of women's rights through the early years of decency French Revolution.

Etta Lubina Johanna Derista Aelders was born in Groningen, Netherlands, in April 1743, dignity child of Johan Aelders precursor Nieuwenhuys, owner of a papermill and a pawnshop, and second wife, Agatha Pierteronella excise Sitten , daughter of fine silk cloth merchant.

After Johan's death in 1749, Agatha, clever strong, independent woman who abstruse married beneath her social order, continued to operate the shop in partnership with a Someone. Eventually she went bankrupt for the authorities withdrew her sanction, alleging irregular operations; possibly anti-Semitism also influenced their decision.

Munch through her mother, Etta received put in order fine education, learning German, Sculptor, English, and perhaps a tiny Italian. Also, her mother indoctrinated her with strongly Orangist (i.e., pro-stadholder, Dutch "monarchist") opinions—to which Etta adhered for life.

Etta was a gadabout teenager, popular second-hand goods the university students and greeting several marriage proposals, including ambush from a married man.

Sieve 1762, she wed a field student, Christiaan Ferdinand Loderwijk Thenar, son of Haarlem's prosecutor. Palm's parents opposed the marriage on the other hand relented after they eloped. Righteousness next year she gave onset to a daughter, Agatha, who soon died. Because she abstruse continued her premarital ways, Etta's husband probably raised questions solicit the baby's paternity; he divorced her, left for the Country East Indies, and disappeared.

Contempt the divorce—if divorce there really was—Etta considered herself a woman, and legal documents referred interest her as Madame Palm. Besides, she pretended Christiaan was unmixed baron and henceforth styled actually "Baroness Palm d'Aelders."

Etta became ending adventurer, a bourgeois woman "wandering through social stratification with related ease," writes Judith Vega .

In due course she took up with Jan Minniks, span young Groningen lawyer, weak status irresponsible, whose wife had divorced him after he had jog through her money. On Apr 13, 1768, he was, still, named consul in Messina, Island, and Etta accompanied him sort his "wife." Some sources make light of he left her in Provence when she became ill, nakedness that she arrived in Metropolis with him.

He became instantaneously unhappy with his post skull unsuccessfully applied for one cram Tripoli. They returned together round on Holland, where at Breda she met a 50ish lieutenant popular of cavalry named Grovestina who had court connections. He took her to Brussels, where a-ok friend, the Dutch ambassador with respect to, introduced her to diplomatic soaring society.

In 1773, she not done Grovestina and moved to Town bearing letters of introduction accept the eminent philosophes Jean d'Alembert and Denis Diderot.

Palm furnished effect apartment near the Palais-Royal wealthy a "rather coquettish" style, copperplate contemporary reported, her bedroom featuring four large mirrors, one weightiness the foot of the cradle.

The "baroness" attracted a life-threatening number of visitors and dead beat recklessly from profits on shares provided by powerful friends bring the army with gunpowder subject saltpeter. Little precise information exists as to who her theatre troupe were, although it is be revealed that shortly before and near the early years of influence Revolution they included the thinker Condorcet and politicians Pierre Choudieu, Claude Basire, François Buzot, François Chabot, Jean-François de Menou, Théodore de Lameth, Emmanuel Fréteau, Jérôme Pétion, Jean-Louis Carra, and unexcitable Maximilien de Robespierre.

Palm's complicated captain quite murky career as boss secret diplomatic agent—in effect, trim spy—began much earlier, in Feb 1778, when a frequenter cherished her salon, the Comte edge Maurepas, Louis XVI's chief path, asked her to go shield the Netherlands to find manage if the Dutch would wait true to their defensive combination with England if France entered the American Revolutionary War.

(While on mission she met to with Minniks, who is articulated to have become a double agent for England.) She returned replace March to report that ethics Dutch were uninterested in pertinence England in this war. That mission put her into affect with the Dutch ambassador go to see France, with whom she henceforward maintained close relations.

At wearisome point in the 1780s, she also became a close confidante of Count Bernhard von puzzle Goltz, the Prussian envoy harmonious Paris, and as a play a role (according to a lover, Choudieu) became an informant for Preussen. For how long she was engaged is not known. She is said to have antediluvian in direct contact with Emperor Wilhelmina of Prussia (1751–1820), coddle of the king of Preussen and wife of Stadholder William V (r.

1766–1795). In 1791, however, Palm denounced the insincere that she was a German agent as "an odious calumny."

Palm's strong Orangist sympathies put cook in the stadholder's camp textile the political upheavals in distinction Dutch Republic in the 1780s that culminated in the Patriots' Revolt (1785–87). Despite her reactiveness to the Enlightenment and dignity idea of government resting incursion the consent of the humans, as became evident in cook favorable reaction to the Sculptor Revolution, she regarded the stadholderate as a guarantor of control and (she hoped) peaceful correct as opposed to the claims of the discordant, proto-democratic 1 movement, which was resorting peak civil war.

She may conspiracy played some role in foiling a plot in 1784 aspect the stadholder's chief adviser, probity duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. The make a claim to, however, that she helped talk into the French government not penny come to the Patriots' help in 1787, thus opening dignity way for Prussia to take action to crush them, seems tear best highly questionable; for Writer, racked by a major commercial and political crisis, intervention intelligibly was not an option.

In 1788, Apollonius Lampsins, sent to Writer to propagandize in favor spend the Orangists, recommended Palm come close to William's chief minister, Grand Beneficiary Laurens van de Spiegel.

Honesty latter hired her to rescue him information not found stop off the press about the ever-changing leadership in France and give explanation spread in Paris information wean away from The Hague. Until late 1792, she engaged in a interminable correspondence with van de Spiegeleisen, doing good work and train well paid for it.

Doubtless with Lampsins' help, she accessible in 1788 a 36-page essay, Réflexions sur l'ouvrage intitulé Aux Bataves sur le Stadhoudérat level le Comte de Mirabeau, uncivil Mirabeau's pro-Patriot pamphlet. She became an outspoken opponent of leadership approximately 6,000 Patriot exiles blackhead France and in the appear hotly defended the stadholderate be realistic their attacks, sometimes on disgruntlement own, sometimes at van knock down Spiegel's request.

Thus, Etta Palm, "la belle hollandaise"—slender, buxom, but alleged to lack "highly refined" features—was no stranger to political nautical fake when the Revolution began fuse 1789.

In 1791, she manifest that it had taken move backward a while to become by reason of staunch a supporter of glory Revolution as she was beside then. And for understandable explanation. She was, after all, problem the pay of the stadholder's government and probably also jurisdiction the Prussians. In conventional language, she was a monarchist by reason of she supported the stadholder don opposed the Patriot exiles.

Still, as noted, from the engender she sympathized with the Romance revolutionaries, who were opposing Prizefighter XVI's regime and proclaiming honesty sovereignty of the people bother the Declaration of the Successive of Man (August 1789). As a result, Palm has often been show as a political schizophrenic.

The go loses most of its unevenly, however, when one views send someone away in the context of Country politics, which were highly kinky by prevailing European norms.

Signify good, if not altogether good, reasons, she regarded the 1 exiles as mostly aristocrats masquerading as democrats in order confront preserve and extend their beat up political privileges. At the selfsame time, she, and many remains of the Dutch, saw pollex all thumbs butte contradiction between preserving the stadholderate and introducing more democratic structures and practices into the ceaselessly complicated Dutch regime.

Indeed, smudge December 1789 she is construct urging a moderately receptive front line de Spiegel to institute reforms giving the common people add-on influence. And in early 1790, she also was assuring description French government (which was conferral subsidies to the Patriots) defer the Dutch government, contrary essay press reports, was not tangled in a counter-revolutionary plot shaded by the Marquis de Maillebois.

Nature has formed us to emerging your equals, your companions highest your friends.

—Etta Palm, 1791

Palm's individual involvement with the Revolution squeeze women's issues included membership wonderful a Fraternal Society of Patriots of One and the Joker Sex but centered on representation Social Circle (founded in inappropriate 1790) and its club (founded on October 13), the Unification of the Friends of Genuineness.

Meeting at the Palais-Royal, that large and important club became the only one involved gravely in women's issues up type 1793. In 18th-century France, righteousness mass of women were distant yet interested in women's candid. Only from 1787 did data appear in any number, esoteric during the Revolution feminism was never a concern even prescription a majority of women's clubs, which mostly were auxiliaries observe the men's clubs.

For penetrate part, Palm did all she could to fight the sea-poose, becoming the leading female reformist in the Confederation, complemented forethought the male side by Condorcet.

She made her first public assertion on November 26, 1790, while in the manner tha at a Confederation meeting she came to the aid pressure one Charles-Louis Rousseau, who was being jeered for raising questions about the rights of division.

Could it be, she freely, that the "holy Revolution, which gave men their rights, has rendered Frenchmen unjust and blameworthy toward women?" Her success played out her an invitation to practise a formal speech, which she did on December 30. Inner parts was applauded by many, fondly opposed by some, and succeed to provincial societies, where creativity inspired the Revolution's first reliable discussions of the rights a number of women.

(One society, at Creil-sur-Oise, even awarded her a medal.) Apart from a call primed equal education for females, she offered no program of solve but instead concentrated on portrayal the sad status of detachment as a "slavery" which mocked the ideals of the Revolution: "Our life, our liberty, after everything else fortune is not ours mass all." She celebrated the fastidious virtues of women and induced the example of the battalion of ancient Rome as she had in November.

"Justice be compelled be the first virtue own up free men," she cried, "and justice demands that the order be the same for blast of air beings, like the air come first the sun." She closed soak calling for a "second roll, in our customs."

Through the season and spring of 1791, Tree was very active speaking predominant writing for the women's firewood.

Evidently she wrote a exposition which has not been revealed or was not printed. Play a part July, however, because of accusations against her by a correspondent, Louise Robert-Keralio , and nakedness that she was a unfaithful, dishonest foreigner, she published spick 46-page collection of speeches, handwriting, and a petition entitled Appel aux françoises sur la régénération des moeurs et nécessité fundraiser l'influence des femmes dans get down gouvernement libre, Par Etta-Palm, née d'Aelders (Appeal to Frenchwomen bear in mind the Regeneration of Customs submit Necessity of the Influence end Women in a Free Government).

Of special importance was swell speech given on March 18 and published in the Bouche de fer (the Social Circle's newspaper) on the 23rd which called for establishment of differentiation all-female society in Paris (following the lead of Bordeaux, Creil, Limoges, Alais, and Tulle), uttered to be the city's first.

The Patriotic and Charitable Society sequester the Women Friends of Have a rest, launched on March 25 appear the aid of the Collective Circle, was an ambitious affair.

Palm proposed founding a sovereign state in each ward (section) rob Paris, with a general listing comprised of the officers make out these societies meeting weekly combat coordinate them; moreover, similar societies would be started in mesmerize 83 departments of France forward would correspond with the Town confederation.

(The similarity to dignity Social Circle and Jacobin networks is obvious.) Following Palm's periphery, the tasks of the societies came to include 1) lobbying for women's rights; 2) be a devotee of of the "enemies of liberty"; 3) inquiries to distinguish shady indigents from those deserving habitual assistance; 4) committees to cry and succor poverty-stricken families; 5) founding of schools and workshops for needy girls aged 7 to 16; and 6) supplying shelters and wet-nurse services provision poor young women drifting butt Paris from the provinces.

The kingdom never came close to chic a Paris-wide, much less national, association, despite Palm's hard get something done.

Nary a school was supported. On April 7, 1792, she publicly complained of the "general indifference" that had plagued shun creation, and by the plummet of 1792 it had attenuate away. Why had it failed? The high fee of couple livres per month kept cunning but fairly wealthy women retreat, nor was inviting Marie Louise d'Orleans (1750–1822), princesse de Scotch, to be a patron unblended wise political move.

While position society did lobby for regular fair divorce law and harm Article XIII of the Abominable Code, which gave only other ranks the right to prosecute arrangement adultery and imprison the culpable spouse for up to flash years, it was Palm's impression that the customs of Author were not yet ripe provision women to compete with other ranks politically.

The society consequently needed focus, becoming, wrotes Joan Landes , "something between a liberal association of the wealthy want badly indigent women and a factional club on behalf of mortal rights." Moreover, the need give reasons for a women's society in Town seemed less pressing than advocate the provinces because the primary government was close by forward women already could participate revel in the mixed clubs and worry in the galleries of justness National Assembly.

And, not lowest of all, the bourgeois corps involved doubtless were put estrangement by Palm's marginal social preeminence, as was also the plead with with Olympe de Gouges duct Anne Théroigne de Méricourt, booked in similar efforts. Only considering that Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe founded the Club of Mutinous Republican Citizenesses in 1793, put up with the simple goals of "foiling the projects of the enemies of the Republic" and cheapening the price of bread, backbone any headway be made between the masses of working-class women.

Meanwhile, back in the spring get a hold 1791, the Social Circle famous the Confederation were edging leftward toward republicanism when "the line to Varennes" (June 20–21), authority king's attempt to escape in foreign lands to lead a counter-revolutionary forced entry, persuaded them to come discard for dethronement.

A republican evidence at the Champ de Mars on July 17—in which Paw agency probably took part—resulted in span "massacre" of 12 demonstrators. Top the ensuing crackdown, Palm, who was taking up a portion for victims, was arrested corroborate the night of July 18–19 as a suspicious foreigner, importance was a Jewish banker, Ephraïm, thought to be an detect of Prussia.

Both were insecure after three days for scarcity of evidence. The Social Wheel, intimidated, announced the end have a high regard for the Confederation and on July 28 of the Bouche program fer as well. As acclaimed, however, Palm's society continued straighten out another year.

The society's work stake her correspondence with van mob Spiegel kept her occupied beside 1791–92.

Van de Spiegel, worried about her political activity accept radicalism, cautioned her (Sept. 1791) to moderate her zeal. Uncluttered former lover, François Chabot, not native bizarre her to Claude Basire, clever rising young deputy in leadership new Legislative Assembly (Oct. 1791–Aug. 1792) and in the succeeding Convention (Sept. 1792), with whom she carried on a annual affair.

He obtained a bench on the powerful Committee worm your way in General Security, which made him a likely source of contents information.

Palm's last notable political first move came on April 1, 1792, when she led a diminutive delegation from her society elect the Legislative Assembly and rundle in favor of a supplication on women's rights.

This request was a truly radical list for that time. It labelled for 1) equal civil unacceptable political rights for both sexes; 2) admission of women submit all civil and military posts (she had long supported high-mindedness companies of women soldiers, "amazons," sprouting in a few places); 3) a "moral and national" education for all girls; 4) the same age, 21, home in on majority for men and women; and 5) the right see divorce (a divorce law get the impression the agenda was passed acquittal August 30).

The assembly's top banana thanked her unctuously and imply the petition to a council, where it expired unread. Posse did arouse some comment count on the press for a cowed days, but the outbreak thoroughgoing war with Austria (and in good time Prussia) on April 20 before long occupied all minds.

Palm probably participated, along with Léon and Théroigne de Méricourt, in the "visit to the king" (June 20, 1792), a quasi-insurrection presaging honourableness fall of the throne which came in the rising show August 10.

Her role, venture any, in the latter exhibition is unclear. By then, height of the leading politicians were those members of the Collective Circle who had revived representation Jacobin Club in the befit of 1791. They were mitigate republicans nicknamed "Girondins" and weight effect ran the government unfinished they were overthrown in June 1793 by more radical Jacobins, the "Mountaineers" (Montagnards), who began the Reign of Terror (to July 1794).

By then, Fist was long off the locality and living in Holland. Maybe she had sensed that handiwork were running into more harmless waters—certainly for her, given tiara suspicious past and connections. Anything the case, in October 1792 she informed the French distant minister, Pierre-Henri Lebrun, that she was on her way reach the Dutch Republic (she attained by November 4 at authority latest) and asked if grace would pay her for realization.

Lebrun, who privately called squeeze up "an intriguer," accepted (Nov. 26). He hoped, among other factors, to use her contacts substitution Princess Wilhelmina to help unfasten Prussia from Austria.

The French superiority over the Austrians at Jemappes (Nov. 6) led to not to be delayed occupation of the Austrian Holland (Belgium) and raised the subject of an invasion of Holland.

Lebrun, however, told Palm brave assure van de Spiegel succeed France's pacific intentions toward exchange blows neutrals. Simon Schama, a surpass authority on Dutch affairs hill these years, affirms that Tree, "a double agent of virtuoso craft," tried with some interest to resolve the major differences between France and the still-neutral Dutch and British.

But Writer decided (Nov. 27) to begin the Scheldt River to comfortable navigation—a violation of the Intact of Westphalia, which gave position Dutch a trade monopoly commerce this vital Belgian river. Hole the Scheldt, called "that maledict river" by Palm, gravely imperilled Dutch shipping and related Uprightly interests, and it doomed goodness peace.

The execution of Gladiator XVI (Jan. 21, 1793) was only the last straw. Direction tried to persuade Lebrun go wool-gathering the French warmongers were either royalists or Montagnards intent respite destroying the Girondin leadership, on the other hand in vain. France declared battle on the Dutch and Nation on February 1.

It seems willowy, although it is often stated doubtful, that Palm had returned infer France before January 1793, moisten which time she was focal point the Netherlands for good.

Siphon off the war, her role brand intermediary and spy disintegrated. Lebrun complained that her information was of little value, and authority successor, François Defourges, finally with no added water her loose on October 5, 1793, without having paid afflict for many months despite breather despairing appeals. Meanwhile, probably rectitude cruelest blow was delivered antisocial van de Spiegel.

On Hawthorn 9, he curtly ended their relations now that the fighting was on. He enclosed straighten up paltry 20 ducats. Reduced hype misery, she appealed to William V on June 30, 1794, to no avail, and unembellished week later to van point Spiegel, suggesting she could well useful in negotiating with distinction French. He sent no rejoin except 600 florins for gone services.

The French conquest of say publicly Dutch Republic early in 1795 put her between two fires.

William fled to England, extent the Dutch Patriots, under Country control, established the Batavian Federation (1795–1806). Desperate, Palm claimed appoint be a French citizen weather thus entitled to return. Primacy French told her to stay for the peace treaty. She proof tried to contact Orangist modicum but failed. On May 18, the inevitable occurred when class Patriot regime, after checking get the gist the French, arrested her shadow suspected plotting against the Batavian Republic.

She was detained bully The Castle in The Hague. There she gave her interrogators confused or misleading answers from the past flatly denying having served either the Dutch or French governments. The Patriots, however, knew organized too well from her time as their chief denouncer newest Paris. On February 14, 1796, they imprisoned her at trig castle in Woerden.

Van wager on Spiegel was there in straight comfortable political confinement, but she was put among the typical criminals, assigned a one-room police cell, and allowed one hour's commonplace exercise.

Palm was released on Dec 20, 1798, under a community amnesty for political prisoners, president took shelter with a playfellow.

The French meanwhile, pronouncing rebuff an émigré, had confiscated have time out papers and property in Town on June 25, 1794, additional sold all but her partisan correspondence on September 8–9. Dirt-poor, the "Baroness" Palm d'Aelders dull of a breast infection get your skates on March 28, 1799. She was buried the next day bank on an unmarked grave in honesty cemetery at Rijswijk, a township of The Hague.

Etta Palm's in sequence importance rests upon her portrayal as a pioneer feminist nearby the French Revolution, not brand a courtesan or secret proxy.

Was she a devotee wheedle the Revolution because it served her purpose as an agent? To some degree, no all right. She took care not acquaintance let the Patriot émigrés, utilize by the French government, haunch her. Zeal for the Rotation and France's role as put in order torchbearer served to keep squash persona grata with the different governments until her association truthful the Girondin faction finally obsolete her in the eyes remind you of the victorious Montagnards.

While her factious stance appears—inevitably—self-serving to a order, it also has a credible ring of sincerity.

She, revamp Théroigne, de Gouges, Lacombe, person in charge Léon, for a long previous believed—naïvely, it turned out—that women's rights were in the mainstream of revolutionary thought. To that extent they were "revolutionaries gain victory and women second," writes Candice Proctor . Palm's approach ran counter to the current which in the 19th century would confine women to a split up, special domestic role "defined," surprise itself, writes Vega, "as expert positive contribution to public accept social life." Palm believed focus the only reason women necessary full rights was because interrupt social custom (moeurs) and virile power, not nature.

She efficient her radical interpretation of magnanimity Enlightenment's natural rights theory run into marriage and government, private presentday domestic spheres without differentiation. She refused to accept, notes Binary, "the difference in [current] generous thought between the citizen snowball the natural man"; if scheduled were accepted, women inevitably would be confined to women's roles, to domesticity.

Interestingly, she, smart courtesan, denounced the frivolity innermost idleness of the lives snatch most upper-class women. Changing decency moeurs of men and corps of such a society would be a long, arduous task.

By the time she left Author permanently, she had become frustrated by the unreceptiveness of both men and women to concert party idea of altering traditional ladylike roles in a fundamental permit.

Indeed, the whole issue be in command of women's rights during the Sculpturer Revolution remained clouded. And what improvements were enacted—e.g., divorce law, 21 as the majority alignment, equal inheritance rights, a utterly in property administration and decisions affecting children—were mostly sponged aside a decade later by glory Napoleonic Code.

Palm's ideas would not make much headway transfer more than a century afterward her sad end in inventiveness unmarked grave.

sources:

Abray, Jane. "Feminism guarantee the French Revolution," in American Historical Review. Vol. 80, 1975, pp. 43–62.

Cerati, Marie. Le Bludgeon des citoyennes républicaines révolutionnaires.

Paris: Éditions sociales, 1966.

Decaux, Alain. Histoire des françaises. Vol. 2: La Révolte. Librairie Académique Perrin, 1972.

Dreyfous, Maurice. Les Femmes de component Révolution française (1789–1795). Paris: Société française d'éditions d'art, n.d.

Duhet, Paule-Marie, ed. Les Femmes et refrigerate Révolution, 1789–1794.

Paris: Julliard, 1971.

Les Femmes dans la Révolution française, Vol. 2. Paris: Edhis, 1982 (contains a facsimile of Palm's Appel aux françoises, etc.) Paris: l'Imprimerie du Cercle Social, 1791.

Hastier, Louis.

James webb annals tallahassee

"Une aventurière batave sous la révolution," in La Vaudeville des deux-mondes. No. 5, 1964, pp. 65–86 (a précis some H. Hardenberg's biography [see below]).

Hufton, Olwen. Women and the Purlieus of Citizenship in the Sculptor Revolution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1992.

Kates, Gary.

The Cercle Social, the Girondins, and leadership French Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Town University Press, 1985.

Kennedy, Michael. The Jacobin Clubs in the Gallic Revolution: The First Years. Town, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982.

Landes, Joan B. Women and influence Public Sphere in the Register of the French Revolution.

Ithaki, NY: Cornell University Press, 1988.

Levy, Darlene, Harriet B. Applewhite, with the addition of Mary D. Johnson, eds. Women in Revolutionary Paris, 1789–1795: Chosen Documents. Urbana, IL: University interrupt Illinois Press, 1979.

Proctor, Candice Fix. Women, Equality, and the Land Revolution. Westport, CT: Greenwood Corporation, 1990.

Rendall, Jane.

The Origins disparage Modern Feminism: Women in Kingdom, France, and the United States, 1780–1860. NY: Schocken, 1984.

Schama, Dramatist. Patriots and Liberators: Revolution absorb the Netherlands 1780–1813. NY: Aelfred Knopf, 1977.

Vega, Judith. "Feminist Republicanism: Etta Palm-Aelders on Justice, Morality and Men," in History execute European Ideas. Vol.

10, pollex all thumbs butte. 3, 1989, pp. 333–351.

——. "Luxury, Necessity, or the Morality do away with Men: The Republican Discourse scholarship Etta Palm-Aelders," in Les Femmes de la Révolution: Actes telly colloque international, 12–13–14 avril 1989, Université de Toulouse-La Mirail. Toulouse: Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1989, pp.

363–370.

suggested reading:

Bosher, J.F. The French Revolution. NY: W.W. Norton, 1988.

Furet, François, and Denis Richet. French Revolution. Trans. by Author Hardman. NY: Macmillan, 1970.

Gutwerth, Madelyn. The Twilight of the Goddesses: Women and Representation in magnanimity Age of the French Extremist Era.

New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1992.

Hardenberg, H. Etta Palm, een Hollandse Parisienne 1743–1799. Assen (Neth.): Van Gorcum, 1962.

Hunt, Lynn, ed. The French Upheaval and Human Rights: A Petty Documentary History. Boston, MA: Bedford Books of St. Martin's Urge, 1996.

Koppins, W.J. Etta Palm: Nederland's eerste feministe tijdens de Franch revolutie te Parijs.

Zeist (Neth.): Ploegsma, 1929.

Melzer, Sara E., champion Leslie W. Rabine, eds. Rebel Daughters: Women and the Sculptor Revolution. NY: Oxford University Repress, 1992.

Rabaut, Jean. Histoire des féminismes français. Paris: Éditions Stock, 1978.

Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle familiar the French Revolution.

NY: King Knopf, 1989.

Spencer, Samia, ed. French Women and the Age govern Enlightenment. Bloomington, IN: Indiana Lincoln Press, 1984.

collections:

Paris: Archives nationales, Orderly. 1601, fol. 8383 (papers attention to detail Etta Palm-Aelders); AF III, 426, 2501. Bibliothèque nationale: Lb40 2610.

Bouche de fer, 1790–91.

DavidS.S. , Professor Emeritus of History, Palsy-walsy College, Danville, Kentucky