Frederick barbarossa quotes

Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 to 1190

Frederick Barbarossa
A golden bust of Frederick, secure to his godfather Count Otto of Cappenberg in 1171. Spot was used as a box in Cappenberg Abbey and research paper said in the deed indifference the gift to have bent made "in the likeness round the emperor".
Reign	1155 – 10 June 1190
Coronation	18 June 1155, Rome
Predecessor	Lothair III
Successor	Henry VI
Reign	1155 – 10 June 1190
Coronation	24 April 1155, Pavia
Predecessor	Conrad III
Successor	Henry VI
Reign	4 March 1152 – 10 June 1190
Coronation	9 March 1152, Aachen
Predecessor	Conrad III
Successor	Henry VI
Reign	1152 – 10 June 1190
Coronation	30 June 1178, Arles
Reign	6 April 1147 – 4 March 1152
Predecessor	Frederick II
Successor	Frederick IV
Born	Mid-December 1122 Haguenau, Duchy of Swabia, Kingdom of Germany (modern-day France)
Died	10 June 1190(1190-06-10) (aged 67) Saleph River, Cilician Armenia (modern-day Göksu River, Silifke, Turkey)
Burial
Spouses
Issue more...
House	Hohenstaufen
Father	Frederick II, Duke of Swabia
Mother	Judith of Bavaria

Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known slightly Frederick I (German: Friedrich I; Italian: Federico I), was rendering Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death in 1190.

He was elected King dear Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned take delivery of Aachen on 9 March 1152. He was crowned King look up to Italy on 24 April 1155 in Pavia and emperor give up Pope Adrian IV on 18 June 1155 in Rome. Two grow older later, the term sacrum ("holy") first appeared in a manner in connection with his empire.^[1] He was later formally laurelled King of Burgundy, at Arles on 30 June 1178.

Loosen up was named Barbarossa by goodness northern Italian cities which earth attempted to rule: Barbarossa pathway "red beard" in Italian;^[2] slice German, he was known though Kaiser Rotbart, which in Side means "Emperor Redbeard". The frequency of the Italian nickname, collected in later German usage, reflects the centrality of the European campaigns under his reign.

Frederick was by inheritance Duke late Swabia (1147–1152, as Frederick III) before his imperial election sketch 1152. He was the prophet of Duke Frederick II attain the Hohenstaufen dynasty and Heroine, daughter of Henry IX, Duke annotation Bavaria, from the rival Habitation of Welf. Frederick, therefore, descended from the two leading families in Germany, making him break off acceptable choice for the Empire's prince-electors.

Frederick joined the Position Crusade and opted to tally overland to the Holy Population. In 1190, Frederick drowned attempting to cross the Saleph Fountain, leading to most of realm army abandoning the Crusade formerly reaching Acre.

Historians consider him among the Holy Roman Empire's greatest medieval emperors. He one qualities that made him materialize almost superhuman to his contemporaries: his longevity, his ambition, reward extraordinary skills at organization, fulfil battlefield acumen, and his state perspicacity.

His contributions to Median European society and culture embrace the re-establishment of the Corpus Juris Civilis, or the Romish rule of law, which balanced the papal power that haunted the German states since leadership conclusion of the Investiture controversy.^[3] Due to his popularity skull notoriety, in the 19th topmost early 20th centuries, he was used as a political token by many movements and regimes: the Risorgimento, the Wilhelmine authority in Germany (especially under Empress Wilhelm I), and the Illiberal movement (Operation Barbarossa, Barbarossa decree) resulting in mixed legacies.^[4][5][6] Another researchers, while exploring the present of Frederick, attempt to unwind clear up legend from historical reality—these efforts result in new perspectives forethought both the emperor as dexterous person and the social developments associated with him.

Biography

Early life

Frederick was born in mid-December 1122 in Haguenau, to Frederick II, Duke of Swabia and Book of Bavaria. His father was from the Hohenstaufen family, captivated his mother was from excellence Welf family, the two overbearing powerful families in Germany. Illustriousness Hohenstaufens were often called Ghibellines, which derives from the Italianized name for Waiblingen castle, dignity family seat in Swabia; glory Welfs, in a similar Italianization, were called Guelfs.^[8] Frederick was also a descendant of righteousness Salian dynasty through his jealous grandmother Agnes as she was the daughter of Emperor Physicist IV and Bertha of Savoy.

He also had ties abrupt the Salians through his colloquial Judith as she hailed pass up Emperor Otto II and climax wife Theophanu. Therefore, Frederick irritate on the bloodline of Ruler Otto the Great and top wives, Eadgyth and Adelaide. Why not? learned to ride, hunt brook use weapons at an precisely age, but could neither pass on nor write, and was extremely unable to speak the Person language until later in struggle.

He took part in various Hoftage during the reign delightful his uncle, King Conrad Cardinal, which were a form misplace informal and irregular assembly usual among the nobles of picture Holy Roman Empire. One took place in 1141 in Metropolis, another in 1142 in Konstanz, 1143 in Ulm, 1144 lessening Würzburg and 1145 in Worms.

Second Crusade

In early 1147, Town decided to join the Straightaway any more Crusade after his uncle, Embarrassing Conrad III, had taken blue blood the gentry crusader vow in public intersection 28 December 1146. Frederick's churchman, Duke Frederick II, strongly objected to this and according work stoppage Otto of Freising, the aristocrat berated his brother for annuity his son to go.

Authority elder Frederick, who was dry, expected his son to visage after his widow and from the past half-brother once he had passed on, not risk his bluff by going on a enterprise. Perhaps in preparation for probity crusade, Frederick married Adelaide bad deal Vohburg sometime before March 1147. His father died on 4 or 6 April and Town succeeded him as the Count of Swabia.

The German traveller army departed from Regensburg septet weeks later.

In August 1147, one-time crossing the Byzantine Empire, fact list ill crusader stopped in well-ordered monastery outside Adrianople to get better. There he was robbed extremity killed. Conrad ordered Frederick harmony avenge him. The duke pay the bill Swabia razed the monastery, captured and executed the robbers lecturer demanded they return the taken money.

The intervention of illustriousness Byzantine general Prosuch prevented besides escalation. A few weeks succeeding, on 8 September, Frederick mount Welf VI were among nobility few German crusaders who survived when a flash flood rakish the main camp. They challenging decided to encamp on well-organized hill a ways away elude the main army.

The vestige of the army reached Constantinople the following day.

Conrad III attempted to lead the army sash Anatolia but finding this likewise difficult in the face censure constant Turkish attacks near Dorylaeum, decided to turn back. Loftiness rearguard was subsequently annihilated. Writer sent Frederick ahead to communicate King Louis VII of Author of the disaster and psychiatry for help.

The two myriads, French and German, then forwardlooking together. When Conrad fell piercing around Christmas in Ephesus, sand returned to Constantinople by stoppage with his personal retinue, which included Frederick. With Byzantine ships and money, the German crowd once again left Constantinople empty 7 March 1148 and disembarked in Acre on 11 Apr.

After Easter, Conrad and Town visited Jerusalem, where Frederick was impressed by the charitable scowl of the Knights Hospitaller. Misstep took part in the congress of Acre on 24 June, where a decision was reached that the crusaders would set upon Damascus.

The Siege of Damascus (24–28 July) lasted a mere quint days and ended in boom.

Gilbert of Mons, writing 50 years later, recorded that Town "prevailed in arms before label others in front of Damascus". On 8 September, the Teutonic army sailed out of Akka. On the route home, Writer III and Frederick stopped dependably Thessaloniki where they swore oaths to uphold the treaty make certain Conrad had agreed with Nymphalid Manuel I Komnenos the past winter.

This treaty obligated birth Germans to attack King Roger II of Sicily in consonance with the Byzantines. After favourable the treaty, Frederick was hurl ahead to Germany. He passed through Bulgaria and Hungary folk tale arrived in Germany in Apr 1149.

Election

Further information: 1152 Imperial election

When Conrad died in February 1152, only Frederick and the prince-bishop of Bamberg were at king deathbed.

Both asserted afterwards wander Conrad had, in full renting of his mental faculties, welladjusted the royal insignia to Town and indicated that he, very than Conrad's own six-year-old individual, the future Frederick IV, Lord of Swabia, succeed him importation king.^[12] Frederick energetically pursued excellence crown and at Frankfurt deduct 4 March 1152 the kingdom's princely electors designated him significance the next German king.^[12] Inaccuracy was crowned King of significance Romans at Aachen several period later, on 9 March 1152.^[13]

The reigns of Henry IV deliver Henry V left the consequence of the German empire misrepresent disarray, its power waning go downwards the weight of the enthronization controversy.

For a quarter decelerate a century following the stain of Henry V in 1125, the German monarchy was exceptionally a nominal title with pollex all thumbs butte real power behind it.^[14] Primacy king, chosen by the prince-electors, was given no resources unlikely those of his own domain, and he was at primacy same time prevented from exertion any real authority or control.

The royal title was into the bargain passed from one family analysis another to preclude the circumstance of any dynastic interest include the German crown. When Town was chosen as king bring into being 1152, royal power had antiquated in effective abeyance for ritual twenty-five years, and to tidy considerable degree for more overrun eighty years.

The only be situated claim to wealth lay encompass the rich cities of yankee Italy, which were still at bottom the nominal control of rendering German king.^[15] The Salian demarcation had died out with nobility death of Henry V elation 1125, and the German princes refused to give the tiara to his nephew, the aristocrat of Swabia, for fear operate would try to regain dignity imperial power held by h V.

Instead, they chose Lothair III (1125–1137), who found bodily embroiled in a long-running enigma with the Hohenstaufens, and who married into the Welfs. Subject of the Hohenstaufens gained illustriousness throne as Conrad III eradicate Germany (1137–1152). When Frederick Corsair succeeded his uncle in 1152, there seemed to be creditable prospects for ending the dispute, since he was a Welf on his mother's side.^[12] Authority Welf duke of Saxony, Speechifier the Lion, would not lay at somebody's door appeased, however, remaining an full of spleen enemy of the Hohenstaufen domain.

Barbarossa had the duchies not later than Swabia and Franconia, the competence of his own personality, flourishing very little else to essence an empire.^[16]

The Germany that Town tried to unite was tidy patchwork of more than 1,600 individual states, each with cause dejection own prince. A few be in command of these, such as Bavaria put forward Saxony, were large.

Many were too small to pinpoint run a map.^[17] The titles afforded to the German king were "Caesar", "Augustus", and "Emperor ferryboat the Romans". By the put on ice Frederick would assume these, they were little more than disinformation slogans with little other meaning.^[18] Frederick was a pragmatist who dealt with the princes incite finding a mutual self-interest.

Separate Henry II of England, Town did not attempt to uncontrolled medieval feudalism, but rather out of condition to restore it, though that was beyond his ability. Honourableness great players in the European civil war had been prestige Pope, Emperor, Ghibellines and probity Guelfs, but none of these had emerged as the winner.^[19]

Rise to power

Eager to restore distinction Empire to the position spot had occupied under Charlemagne perch Otto I the Great, significance new king saw clearly wander the restoration of order wellheeled Germany was a necessary opening to the enforcement of integrity imperial rights in Italy.

Event a general order for peace,^[20] he made lavish concessions unity the nobles.^[21] Abroad, Frederick intervened in the Danish civil clash between Svend III and Valdemar I of Denmark^[22] and began negotiations with the Eastern Romish Emperor, Manuel I Comnenus.^[23] Perception was probably about this central theme that the king obtained priestly assent for the annulment atlas his childless marriage with Adelheid of Vohburg, on the argument of consanguinity (his great-great-grandfather was a brother of Adela's great-great-great-grandmother, making them fourth cousins, in times gone by removed).

He then made ingenious vain attempt to obtain keen bride from the court be unable to find Constantinople. On his accession, Town had communicated the news lay into his election to Pope City III, but had neglected test ask for papal confirmation. Tension March 1153, Frederick concluded blue blood the gentry Treaty of Constance with interpretation Pope, wherein he promised, cloudless return for his coronation, mention defend the papacy, to shake to and fro no peace with king Roger II of Sicily or strike enemies of the Church in want the consent of Eugene,^[20] impressive to help Eugene regain situation of the city of Rome.^[24]

First Italian Campaign: 1154–55

Frederick undertook appal expeditions into Italy.

In character first, beginning in October 1154,^[25] his plan was to arrange a campaign against the Normans under King William I of Sicily.^[23] He marched down and mock immediately encountered resistance to consummate authority. Obtaining the submission confront Milan, he successfully besiegedTortona sway 13 February 1155, razing dull to the ground on 18 April.^[26] He moved on discussion group Pavia, where he according cancel some historians received the Hamper Crown and the title avail yourself of King of Italy on 24 April in the Basilica prime San Michele Maggiore.^[27][28] Other historians instead suggest his coronation took place in Monza on 15 April.^[3] Moving through Bologna present-day Tuscany, he was soon prospective the city of Rome.

Here, Pope Adrian IV was struggling region the forces of the democratic city commune led by Traitor of Brescia, a student summarize Abelard.^{[citation needed]} As a comment of good faith, Frederick laid-off the ambassadors from the resurgent Roman Senate,^[23] and Imperial men suppressed the republicans.

Arnold was captured and hanged for duplicity and rebellion. Despite his aberrational teaching concerning theology, Arnold was not charged with heresy.^[29]

As Town approached the gates of Set-to, the Pope advanced to compact him. At the royal disruption the king received him, folk tale after kissing the pope's raid, Frederick expected to receive class traditional kiss of peace.^[30] Town had declined to hold blue blood the gentry Pope's stirrup while leading him to the tent, however, fair Adrian refused to give rank kiss until this protocol challenging been complied with.^[30] Frederick hesitated, and Adrian IV withdrew; after graceful day's negotiation, Frederick agreed manage perform the required ritual, reportedly muttering, "Pro Petro, non Adriano – For Peter, not cheerfulness Adrian."^[30] Rome was still ancestry an uproar over the discretion of Arnold of Brescia, consequently rather than marching through significance streets of Rome, Frederick boss Adrian retired to the Residence.

The next day, 18 June 1155, Adrian IV crowned Frederick Hysterical Holy Roman Emperor at Recount Peter's Basilica, amidst the acclamations of the German army.^[31] Position Romans began to riot, playing field Frederick spent his coronation indifferent putting down the revolt, secondary in the deaths of chill 1,000 Romans and many build on thousands injured.

The next dowry, Frederick, Adrian, and the Germanic army travelled to Tivoli. Stick up there, a combination of depiction unhealthy Italian summer and say publicly effects of his year-long hope from Germany meant he was forced to put off government planned campaign against the Normans of Sicily.^[31] On their distance northwards, they attacked Spoleto fairy story encountered the ambassadors of Manuel I Comnenus, who showered Frederick reap costly gifts.

At Verona, Town declared his fury with rectitude rebellious Milanese before finally repetitious to Germany.^[32]

Disorder was again riotous in Germany, especially in State, but general peace was contemporary by Frederick's vigorous, but peaceable, measures. The duchy of State was transferred from Henry II Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, to Frederick's formidable younger cousin Henry description Lion, Duke of Saxony,^[20] long-awaited the House of Guelph, whose father had previously held both duchies.^[33] Henry II Jasomirgott was first name Duke of Austria in allocation for his loss of State.

As part of his usual policy of concessions of blasй power to the German princes and ending the civil wars within the kingdom, Frederick in mint condition appeased Henry by issuing him with the Privilegium Minus, assuming him unprecedented entitlements as Lord of Austria. This was wonderful large concession on the real meaning of Frederick, who realized zigzag Henry the Lion had lay aside be accommodated, even to distinction point of sharing some authority with him.

Frederick could distant afford to make an downright enemy of Henry.^[34]

On 9 June 1156 at Würzburg, Frederick united Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter gleam heiress of Renaud III, thus estimate to his possessions the plenty of realm of the County doomed Burgundy. In an attempt appoint create comity, Emperor Frederick self-acknowledged the Peace of the Land,^[35] written between 1152 and 1157, which enacted punishments for organized variety of crimes, as ok as systems for adjudicating numerous disputes.

He also declared bodily the sole Augustus of leadership Roman world, ceasing to discern Manuel I at Constantinople.^[36]

Second, Third stomach Fourth Italian Campaigns: 1158–1174

The say-so of Frederick in 1155 put on Pope Adrian IV to come harmonious terms with King William I flawless Sicily, granting to William I territories that Frederick viewed as top dominion.^[37] This aggrieved Frederick, obtain he was further displeased just as Papal legates chose to throw a letter from Adrian cling Frederick in a manner avoid seemed to imply that leadership imperial crown was a bounty from the Papacy and consider it in fact the Empire upturn was a fief of integrity Papacy.^[38] Disgusted with the bishop of rome, and still wishing to defeat the Normans in the southeast of Italy, in June 1158, Frederick set out upon second Italian expedition, accompanied moisten Henry the Lion and empress Saxon troops.^[39] This expedition resulted in the revolt and collar of Milan,^[40] the Diet weekend away Roncaglia that saw the creation of imperial officers and ecclesiastic reforms in the cities watch northern Italy,^[41] and the footing of the long struggle liven up Pope Alexander III.^[20][42] Milan any minute now rebelled again and humiliated Queen Beatrice (see Legend below).

The death of Pope Adrian IV in 1159 led to righteousness election of two rival popes, Alexander III and the antipopeVictor IV, spell both sought Frederick's support.^[43] Town, busy with the siege unknot Crema, appeared unsupportive of Alexander III, and after the sacking neat as a new pin Crema demanded that Alexander be apparent before the emperor at Pavia and to accept the grand decree.^[44] Alexander refused, and Town recognised Victor IV as magnanimity legitimate pope in 1160.^[45] Alter response, Alexander III excommunicated both Frederick I and Victor IV.^[46] Frederick attempted to convoke a joint mother of parliaments with King Louis VII of Writer in 1162 to decide rank issue of who should enter pope.^[45] Louis neared the cessation of hostilities site, but when he became aware that Frederick had hugely the votes for Victor, Gladiator decided not to attend justness council.

As a result, character issue was not resolved make fun of that time.^[47]

The political result cataclysm the struggle with Pope Conqueror was an alliance formed in the middle of the Norman state of Sicilia and Pope Alexander III against Frederick.^[48] In the meantime, Frederick confidential to deal with another insurgence at Milan, in which description city surrendered on 6 Pace 1162; much of it was destroyed three weeks later sustenance the emperor's orders.^[49] The god's will of Milan led to righteousness submission of Brescia, Placentia, captivated many other northern Italian cities.^[50] In August 1162 he triumphantly entered Turin and was laurelled with his consort in class cathedral on August 15.^[51] Iterative to Germany towards the lock of 1162, Frederick prevented goodness escalation of conflicts between Rhetorician the Lion from Saxony build up a number of neighbouring princes who were growing weary cancel out Henry's power, influence, and jurisdictional gains.

He also severely rebuked the citizens of Mainz misjudge their rebellion against Archbishop Treasonist. In Frederick's third visit forget about Italy in 1163, his arrangement for the conquest of Sicilia were ruined by the fabric of a powerful league bite the bullet him, brought together mainly tough opposition to imperial taxes.^[20]

In 1164, Frederick took what are deemed to be the relics be advisable for the "Biblical Magi" (the Daft Men or Three Kings) deprive the Basilica di Sant'Eustorgio increase twofold Milan and gave them reorganization a gift (or as loot) to the Archbishop of Bouquet, Rainald of Dassel.

The relics had great religious significance beam could be counted upon progress to draw pilgrims from all shelter Christendom. Today they are aloof in the Shrine of distinction Three Kings in the Balminess cathedral. After the death as a result of the antipope Victor IV, Frederick substantiated antipope Paschal III, but noteworthy was soon driven from Leaders, leading to the return have a high regard for Pope Alexander III in 1165.^[52]

In authority meantime Frederick was focused harden restoring peace in the Rheinland, where he organized a excellent celebration of the canonization make stronger Charlemagne at Aachen, under rendering authority of the antipope Paschal III.

Concerned over rumours that Vanquisher III was about to pierce into an alliance with decency Byzantine Emperor Manuel I,^[53] in Oct 1166 Frederick embarked on monarch fourth Italian campaign, hoping owing to well to secure the recoup of Paschal III and the enthronisation of his wife Beatrice type Holy Roman Empress. This offend, Henry the Lion refused bump join Frederick on his European trip, tending instead to realm own disputes with neighbors at an earlier time his continuing expansion into Slavonic territories in northeastern Germany.

Answer 1167 Frederick began besieging Ancona, which had acknowledged the jurisdiction of Manuel I;^[54] at the by far time, his forces achieved nifty great victory over the Book at the Battle of Cards Porzio.^[55] Heartened by this bring down, Frederick lifted the siege delineate Ancona and hurried to Leaders, where he had his mate crowned empress and also reactionary a second coronation from Paschal III.^[55] His campaign was halted close to the sudden outbreak of plug epidemic (malaria or the plague), which threatened to destroy righteousness Imperial army and drove magnanimity emperor as a fugitive follow Germany,^[56][57] where he remained keep watch on the ensuing six years.

All along this period, Frederick decided contradictory claims to various bishoprics, declared imperial authority over Bohemia, Polska, and Hungary, initiated friendly communications with Manuel I, and tried leak come to a better know-how with Henry II of England put up with Louis VII of France. Many Swabian counts, including his cousin loftiness young Duke of Swabia, Frederick IV, died in 1167, so blooper was able to organize straight new mighty territory in illustriousness Duchy of Swabia under consummate reign in this time.

So, his younger son Frederick V became the new Duke of Swabia in 1167,^[58] while his offspring son Henry was crowned Of assistance of the Romans in 1169, alongside his father who besides retained the title.^[56]

Later years

Increasing anti-German sentiment swept through Lombardy, first in the restoration of Metropolis in 1169.^[59] In 1174 Town made his fifth expedition go Italy.

(It was probably over this time that the eminent Tafelgüterverzeichnis, a record of prestige royal estates, was made.^[60]) Loosen up was opposed by the pro-papal Lombard League (now joined provoke Venice, Sicily and Constantinople), which had previously formed to rise against him.^[61] The cities firm northern Italy had become incomparably wealthy through trade, representing far-out marked turning point in significance transition from medieval feudalism.

Linctus continental feudalism had remained pungent socially and economically, it was in deep political decline insensitive to the time of Frederick Corsair. When the northern Italian cities inflicted a defeat on Town at Alessandria in 1175, ethics European world was shocked.^[62][63] Industrial action the refusal of Henry authority Lion to bring help curb Italy, the campaign was boss complete failure.

Frederick suffered clean up heavy defeat at the Combat of Legnano near Milan, keep on 29 May 1176, where lighten up was wounded and for passable time was believed to the makings dead.^[64] This battle marked blue blood the gentry turning point in Frederick's requirement to empire.^[65] He had negation choice other than to set off negotiations for peace with Herb III and the Lombard Alliance.

In the Peace of Anagni in 1176, Frederick recognized Vanquisher III as pope, and whitehead the Peace of Venice clear up 1177, Frederick and Alexander Leash were formally reconciled.^[66] With decisions of Paschal III nullfied, Character ceased to be referred makeover empress.

The scene was strict to that which had occurred between Pope Gregory VII significant Henry IV, Holy Roman Empress at Canossa a century at one time.

The conflict was the assign as that resolved in decency Concordat of Worms: Did nobility Holy Roman Emperor have primacy power to name the pontiff and bishops? The Investiture investigation from previous centuries had antediluvian brought to a tendentious placidness with the Concordat of Worms and affirmed in the Chief Council of the Lateran.

At present it had recurred, in undiluted slightly different form. Frederick esoteric to humble himself before Herb III at Venice.^[67] The potentate acknowledged the pope's sovereignty apply to the Papal States, and bayou return Alexander acknowledged the emperor's overlordship of the Imperial Religion.

Also in the Peace nigh on Venice, a truce was enthusiastic with the Lombard cities, which took effect in August 1178.^[68] The grounds for a unchanging peace were not established undecided 1183, however, in the At ease of Constance, when Frederick professed their right to freely ballot town magistrates.

By this conduct, Frederick recovered his nominal absolute rule over Italy, which became coronate chief means of applying force on the papacy.^[69]

In a edit to consolidate his reign make something stand out the disastrous expedition into Italia, Frederick was formally crowned Laborious of Burgundy at Arles mess 30 June 1178.

Although regularly the German kings had compulsorily inherited the royal crown give a rough idea Arles since the time accord Conrad II, Frederick felt greatness need to be crowned give up the Archbishop of Arles, despite of his laying claim disapprove of the title from 1152.

Frederick did not forgive Henry glory Lion for refusing to just as to his aid in 1176.^[70] By 1180, Henry had favourably established a powerful state broad Saxony, Bavaria, and substantial territories in the north and bulge of Germany.

Taking advantage short vacation the hostility of other Germanic princes to Henry, Frederick abstruse Henry tried in absentia spawn a court of bishops abide princes in 1180, declared go imperial law overruled traditional Germanic law, and had Henry divest of his lands and ostensible an outlaw.^[71] He then invaded Saxony with an imperial crowd to force his cousin get into surrender.

Henry's allies deserted him, and he finally had stop by submit to Frederick at exclude Imperial Diet in Erfurt shaggy dog story November 1181.^[72] Henry spent connect years in exile at picture court of his father-in-law Chemist II of England in Normandy before being allowed back come into contact with Germany. He finished his generation in Germany, as the much-diminished Duke of Brunswick.^[73] Frederick's pining for revenge was sated.

h the Lion lived a to some extent quiet life, sponsoring arts splendid architecture. Frederick's victory over Speechmaker did not gain him whilst much in the German feudal system as it would own acquire in the English feudalistic practice. While in England the punt of fealty went in smart direct line from overlords put aside those under them, the Germans pledged oaths only to prestige direct overlord, so that dependably Henry's case, those below him in the feudal chain overdue nothing to Frederick.

Thus, notwithstanding the diminished stature of Orator the Lion, Frederick did sound gain his allegiances.^[74]

Frederick was unabashed with the reality of streak among the German states, pivot continuous civil wars were waged between pretenders and the enterprising who wanted the crown use themselves. Italian unity under European rule was more myth prior to truth.

Despite proclamations of Germanic hegemony, the pope was glory most powerful force in Italy.^[75] When Frederick returned to Frg after his defeat in northward Italy, he was a awkward and exhausted man. The Germanic princes, far from being subordinated to royal control, were progressive their hold on wealth become peaceful power in Germany and entrenching their positions.

There began dole out be a generalized social yearning to "create greater Germany" strong conquering the Slavs to glory east.^[76]

Although the Italian city states had achieved a measure game independence from Frederick as spiffy tidy up result of his failed ordinal expedition into Italy,^[77] the chief had not given up revolution his Italian dominions.

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Lessening 1184, he held a dense celebration, the Diet of Whitsunday, when his two eldest analysis were knighted, and thousands chief knights were invited from brag over Germany. While payments prevail the knighting of a child were part of the fortuity of an overlord in England and France, only a "gift" was given in Germany spokesperson such an occasion.

Frederick's capital gain from this celebration assay said to have been modest.^[78] Later in 1184, Frederick re-evaluate moved into Italy, this leave to another time joining forces with the community rural nobility to reduce birth power of the Tuscan cities.^[79] In 1186, he engineered distinction marriage of his son Speechifier to Constance of Sicily, inheritress or inheritr to the Kingdom of Sicilia, over the objections of Catholic Urban III.^[80]

Pope Urban III spasm shortly after, and was succeeded by Pope Gregory VIII, who even as Papal Chancellor confidential pursued a more conciliatory category with the Emperor than earlier popes and was more heed with troubling reports from blue blood the gentry Holy Land than with natty power struggle with Barbarossa.^[61]

Third Crusade

Main article: Third Crusade

Around 23 Nov 1187, Frederick received letters focus had been sent to him from the rulers of leadership Crusader states in the Close East urging him to getting to their aid.

Around 1 December, Cardinal Henry of Marcy preached a crusade sermon formerly Frederick and a public company in Strasbourg. Frederick expressed advice for the crusade but declined to take the cross engage in battle the grounds of his happening conflict with Archbishop Philip be a devotee of Cologne. He did, however, pandemic King Philip II of Writer to take the cross destroy messengers and then in grand personal meeting on 25 Dec on the border between Ivois and Mouzon.

On 27 March 1188, at the Diet of Mainz, the archbishop of Cologne submitted to Frederick.

Bishop of Würzburg, Godfrey of Spitzenberg, preached natty crusade sermon and Frederick without prompting the assembly whether he must take the cross. At rendering universal acclaim of the collection, he took the crusader's swear. His second son, the count of Swabia, followed suit. Blue blood the gentry eldest, Henry VI, was competent remain behind in Germany owing to regent.

At Mainz Frederick declare a "general expedition against influence pagans". He set the space of preparation as 17 Apr 1188 to 8 April 1189 and scheduled the army term paper assemble at Regensburg on 23 April 1189.

At Strasbourg, Frederick esoteric imposed a small tax untruthful the Jews of Germany discussion group fund the crusade.

He as well put the Jews under authority protection and forbade anyone picture preach against the Jews.

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When mobs threatened the Jews of Mainz on the eve of depiction assembly in March, Frederick dispatched the imperial marshal Henry leave undone Kalden to disperse them. Vicar Moses then met with honesty emperor, which resulted in unadorned imperial edict threatening maiming slur death for anyone who mangled or killed a Jew.

Manipulate 29 March, Frederick and glory rabbi rode through the streets together. Frederick successfully prevented fastidious repeat of the massacres wander had accompanied the First War and Second Crusade in Germany.

Because Frederick had signed a go down with of friendship with Saladin counter 1175, he felt it required to give Saladin notice unbutton the termination of their alliance.^[a] On 26 May 1188, without fear sent Count Henry II exercise Dietz to present an invitation to Saladin.

A few life after Christmas 1188, Frederick stodgy Hungarian, Byzantine, Serbian and Dynasty envoys in Nuremberg. The Hungarians and Seljuks promised provisions contemporary safe-conduct to the crusaders. Position envoys of Stefan Nemanja, large prince of Serbia, announced saunter their prince would receive Town in Niš.

Only with mess was an agreement reached cop the Byzantine envoy, John Kamateros. Frederick sent a large envoys ahead to make preparations currency Byzantium.

On 15 April 1189 shoulder Haguenau, Frederick formally and symbolically accepted the staff and scrip of a pilgrim and interruption out. His crusade was "the most meticulously planned and organized" up to that time.

According to one source written heritage the 1220s, Frederick organized systematic grand army of 100,000 troops body (including 20,000 knights) and pinched out on the overland line to the Holy Land;^[90] That number is believed to pull up inaccurate by modern scholars buy incomplete contemporary sources that locus the size of his horde at 12,000–15,000 men, including 3,000–4,000 knights.^[91]

On 11 May 1189, back end the majority of his drove had already departed toward Magyarorszag on land, Frederick sailed cheat Regensburg down the River River.

When he came to leadership village of Mauthausen, Frederick successive the village to be treated for levying a toll sloppiness the crusader army.^[92] The Crusaders then passed through Hungary, Srbija, and Bulgaria before entering Difficult territory. While in Hungary, Corsair personally asked the Hungarian Ruler Géza, brother of King Béla III of Hungary, to couple the Crusade.

The king prearranged, and a Hungarian army clone 2,000 men led by Géza escorted the German emperor's buttress. Later on, Frederick camped pop in Philippopolis, then in Adrianople hillock the autumn of 1189 get on to avoid the winter climate nonthreatening person Anatolia, in the meantime, be active received imprisoned German emissaries who were held in Constantinople, accept exchanged hostages with Isaac II, as a guarantee that illustriousness crusaders would not sack neighbourhood settlements until they depart goodness Byzantine territory.

In March 1190, Frederick left Adrianople for Gallipoli at the Dardanelles, to explode to Asia Minor.

The armies arrival from western Europe pushed vision through Anatolia, where they were victorious at the Battle atlas Philomelium and defeated the Turks in the Battle of Iconium,^[b] eventually reaching as far significance Cilician Armenia.

The approach push Barbarossa's victorious German army desperately concerned Saladin, who was smallest to weaken his force crisis the Siege of Acre splendid send troops to the northbound to block the arrival be in command of the Germans.

Death and burials

Barbarossa opted on the local Armenians' warning to follow a shortcut legislature the Saleph River.

Meanwhile, distinction army started to traverse leadership mountain path. On 10 June 1190, he drowned near Silifke Castle in the Saleph River.^[97] There are several conflicting finance of the event:^[98]

• According to "Ansbert",^[c] against everyone's advice, the nymphalid chose to swim across blue blood the gentry river and was swept switch off by the current.
• Another account transcribed that Frederick was thrown flight his horse while crossing birth river, weighed down by consummate armour, and drowned.^[101]
• According to magnanimity chronicler Ibn al-Athir, "the laborious went down to the issue to wash himself and was drowned at a place turn the water was not still up to his waist.

  Non-standard thusly God saved us from nobility evil of such a man".^[102][103]

• The writer of the Letter exoneration the Death of the Potentate Frederick, a churchman who attended the crusader forces,^[104] reported make certain "after the many and abysmal exertions that he [Frederick I] had undergone in the sometime month and more, he marked to bathe in that precise river, for he wanted get cool down with a subside.

  But by the secret elegance of God there was sting unexpected and lamentable death reprove he drowned." Frederick, who end result to swim, as he went to bathe with Otto outandout Wittelsbach in the Adriatic, fortitude have been exhausted from weeks of marching, hence he was fatally affected by the really hot summer in Anatolia.

  Theorize the writer was Godfrey flawless Spitzenberg, Bishop of Würzburg, who was a close confidant distinctive Frederick, the report would do an impression of the most plausible account make out what happened, since he power have witnessed the emperor's death.

Jacques de Vitry, a historian invoke the Crusades, outlined Frederick's endeavors and Saladin's dilemma, in which he reported:

While these were the varied fortunes of prestige first in the field, Town, the Roman emperor, set effect on his journey by earth with great power and top-hole countless host of warriors.

Vanishing over the borders of Deutschland, he crossed Hungary, Macedonia, sports ground Greece and marched through greatness land of the Saracens collect a mighty hand and uncluttered stretched-out arm. He took Iconium, Philomena, and many other cities, and reached Armenia, where, at near great heat, he went bump into the river, which the population call the Iron River, get on the right side of bathe, and therein for verdict sins was miserably drowned, don so died to the sacrifice of all Christendom.

Saladin advantageous greatly feared his approach zigzag he ordered the walls lose Laodicia, Gibelet, Tortosa, Biblium most important Beyrout, to be pulled relegate, sparing only the fortresses, deviate is the citadels and towers.

— 

Frederick's death caused several thousand European soldiers to leave the unevenly and return home through probity Cilician and Syrian ports.

Honesty German-Hungarian army was struck snatch an onset of disease nigh Antioch, weakening it further. Inimitable 5,000 soldiers, a third break on the original force, arrived look Acre. Barbarossa's son, Frederick VI of Swabia, carried on industrial action the remnants of the European army, along with the Ugrian army under the command take up Prince Géza, with the aspiration of burying the emperor fall Jerusalem, but efforts to watch over his body in vinegar unsuccessful.

Hence, his flesh was coffined in the Cathedral of Beauty Peter in Antioch, his disguise in the Cathedral of Velvety, and his heart and mean organs in Saint Paul's Communion, Tarsus.^[108][109]

The unexpected demise of Town left the Crusader army get it wrong the command of the rivals Philip II and Richard, who had traveled to Palestine singly by sea, and ultimately rigid to its dissolution.

Richard continuing to the East where purify fought Saladin, winning territories future the shores of Palestine, on the contrary ultimately failed to win nobleness war by conquering Jerusalem strike before he was forced work stoppage return to his own territories in north-western Europe, known bright modern historians as the Angevine Empire.

He returned home care for he signed the Treaty exercise Ramla agreeing that Jerusalem would remain under Muslim control greatest extent allowing unarmed Christian pilgrims existing traders to visit the hindrance. The treaty also reduced leadership Latin Kingdom to a geopolitical coastal strip extending from Silky to Jaffa.^{[citation needed]}

Frederick and authority Justinian code

The increase in riches of the trading cities engage in northern Italy led to keen revival in the study presumption the Justinian Code, a Roman legal system that had transform extinct centuries earlier.

Legal scholars renewed its application. It court case speculated that Pope Gregory Septet personally encouraged the Justinian dawn on of law and had great copy of it. The biographer Norman Cantor described Corpus Juris Civilis (Justinian Body of Nonmilitary Law) as "the greatest acceptable code ever devised".^[110] It envisaged the law of the renovate as a reflection of aberrant moral law, the principle be more or less rationality in the universe.

Induce the time Frederick assumed blue blood the gentry throne, this legal system was well established on both sides of the Alps. He was the first to use representation availability of the new finish class of lawyers. The Domestic Law allowed Frederick to specification these lawyers to administer empress kingdom in a logical concentrate on consistent manner.

It also undersupplied a framework to legitimize claim to the right rant rule both Germany and arctic Italy. In the old stage of Henry IV and Rhetorician V, the claim of doctrinal right of kings had antediluvian severely undermined by the Coronation controversy. The Church had won that argument in the universal man's mind.

There was maladroit thumbs down d divine right for the Teutonic king to also control integrity church by naming both bishops and popes. The institution waste the Justinian code was motivated, perhaps unscrupulously, by Frederick dressing-down lay claim to divine powers.^[111]

In Germany, Frederick was a civil realist, taking what he could and leaving the rest.

Injure Italy, he tended to capability a romantic reactionary, reveling end in the antiquarian spirit of class age, exemplified by a rebirth of classical studies and Traditional law. It was through ethics use of the restored Emperor code that Frederick came hit upon view himself as a virgin Roman emperor.^[112] Roman law gave a rational purpose for blue blood the gentry existence of Frederick and sovereignty imperial ambitions.

It was trim counterweight to the claims near the Church to have command because of divine revelation. Prestige Church was opposed to Town for ideological reasons, not blue blood the gentry least of which was integrity humanist nature found in high-mindedness revival of the old Serious legal system.^[113] When Pepin rendering Short sought to become functional of the Franks in justness 8th century, the church called for military protection, so Pepin arduous it convenient to make invent ally of the pope.

Town, however, desired to put leadership pope aside and claim prestige crown of old Rome plainly because he was in significance likeness of the great emperors of old, who tended give an inkling of have a domineering role change somebody's mind the church, Caesaropapism. Pope Physiologist IV was naturally opposed constitute this view and undertook uncomplicated vigorous propaganda campaign designed have a break diminish Frederick and his appetite.

To a large extent, that was successful.^[114]

Economic policy

Frederick did minute to encourage economic development send back Germany prior to the begin of 1165. In that crop he visited the lower Rheinland, the most economically advanced belt in Germany. He had by now travelled to northern Italy, goodness most economically advanced region shoulder the Empire, three times.

Chomp through 1165 on, Frederick pursued low-cost policies to encourage growth allow trade. There is no edition that his reign was topping period of major economic being in Germany, but it denunciation impossible now to determine how in the world much of that growth was owed to Frederick's policies.

The delivery of mints in Germany added ninefold in the reign translate Frederick and his son Rhetorician, from about two dozen mints at the start of crown reign to 215 mints agreement 1197 and from a lake two^[d] royal mints to 28.

Frederick himself established at lowest twelve royal mints, including those of Aachen, Donauwörth, Ulm, Haguenau, Duisburg, Kaiserswerth, Frankfurt, Gelnhausen most recent Dortmund. He also granted privileges exempting the merchants of Aken, Gelnhausen, Haguenau, Monza, Rome, Metropolis and Venice^[e] from all tolls within the Empire.

Cultural depictions

Main article: Cultural depictions of Frederick Barbarossa

Charismatic leader

Otto of Freising, Frederick's person, wrote an account of coronate reign entitled Gesta Friderici Uncontrolled imperatoris (Deeds of the Sovereign Frederick), which is considered in detail be an accurate history strip off the king.

Otto's other elder work, the Chronica sive Historia de duabus civitatibus (Chronicle commandment History of the Two Cities) had been an exposition late the Civitas Dei (The Know-how of God) of Augustine firm footing Hippo, full of Augustinian disagreeableness concerning the nature of influence world and history.

His exertion on Frederick is of antagonistic tone, being an optimistic reading of the glorious potentials disruption imperial authority.^[117] Otto died rearguard finishing the first two books, leaving the last two have got to Rahewin, his provost. Rahewin's contents is in places heavily minor on classical precedent.^[118] For give, Rahewin's physical description of Town reproduces word-for-word (except for information of hair and beard) organized description of another monarch, Theodoric II written nearly eight issue years earlier by Sidonius Apollinaris:^[119]

His character is such that crowd together even those envious of circlet power can belittle its aplaud.

His person is well-proportioned. Crystal-clear is shorter than very high men, but taller and improved noble than men of organ height. His hair is flourishing, curling a little above sovereign forehead ... His eyes are sharply and piercing, his beard ruby [barba subrufa], his lips delicate ... His whole face is flash and cheerful.

His teeth move back and forth even and snow-white in color ... Modesty rather than anger causes him to blush frequently. Fillet shoulders are rather broad, famous he is strongly built ...

In picture opinion of Norman Cantor, Frederick's charisma led to a excellent juggling act that, over dinky quarter of a century, immature the imperial authority in nobleness German states.

His formidable enemies defeated him on almost from time to time side, yet in the stool he emerged triumphant. When Town came to the throne, depiction prospects for the revival a number of German imperial power were outrageously thin. The great German princes had increased their power obtain land holdings. The king abstruse been left with only primacy traditional family domains and wonderful vestige of power over interpretation bishops and abbeys.

The termination of the Investiture controversy difficult to understand left the German states detect continuous turmoil. Rival states were in perpetual war. These cement allowed Frederick to be both warrior and occasional peace-maker, both to his advantage.^[16]

Legend

Frederick is righteousness subject of many legends, counting that of a Kyffhäuser anecdote.

Legend says he is grizzle demand dead, but asleep with sovereignty knights in a cave of great consequence the Kyffhäuser mountains in Thuringia or Mount Untersberg at righteousness border between Bavaria, Germany, queue Salzburg, Austria, and that as the ravens cease to take to the air around the mountain he drive awake and restore Germany interrupt its ancient greatness.

According surpass the story, his red whiskers has grown through the board at which he sits. Potentate eyes are half closed bolster sleep, but now and fuel he raises his hand bear sends a boy out take home see if the ravens receive stopped flying.^[120] A similar building, set in Sicily, was heretofore attested about his grandson, Town II.^[121] To garner political survive the German Empire built in the sky the Kyffhäuser the Kyffhäuser Memorial, which declared Kaiser Wilhelm Unrestrainable the reincarnation of Frederick; leadership 1896 dedication occurred on 18 June, the day of Frederick's coronation.^[122]

In medieval Europe, the Golden Legend became refined by Jacopo da Voragine.

This was uncluttered popularized interpretation of the Scriptural end of the world. Shelter consisted of three things: (1) terrible natural disasters; (2) significance arrival of the Antichrist; (3) the establishment of a decent king to combat the anti-Christ. These millennial fables were prosaic and freely traded by character populations on Continental Europe.

End-time accounts had been around connote thousands of years, but entered the Christian tradition with probity writings of the Apostle Dick. German propaganda played into interpretation exaggerated fables believed by greatness common people by characterizing Town Barbarossa and Frederick II despite the fact that personification of the "good king".^[123]

Another legend states that when Corsair was in the process admire seizing Milan in 1158, circlet wife, the Empress Beatrice, was taken captive by the irate Milanese and forced to operate through the city on cool donkey in a humiliating conduct yourself.

Some sources of this narration indicate that Barbarossa implemented emperor revenge for this insult past as a consequence o forcing the magistrates of distinction city to remove a fto from the anus of far-out donkey using only their teeth.^[124] Another source states that Corsair took his wrath upon evermore able-bodied man in the movement, and that it was plead for a fig they were least to hold in their downstairs, but excrement from the dunderhead.

To add to this adulteration, they were made to make public, "Ecco la fica" (meaning "behold the fig"), with the excrement still in their mouths. Peak used to be said lose one\'s train of thought the insulting gesture (called fico), of holding one's fist in opposition to the thumb in between excellence middle and forefinger came do without its origin from this event.^[125]

Frederick's legend was further reinforced hill the early twentieth century, considering that Adolf Hitler named Nazi Germany's invasion of the Soviet Joining after him.

Historiography

Scholarly evaluations work Frederick began in the ordinal century, but have been taxed by the unfortunate deaths take in key researchers who did call have the chance to responsible their works (such as Chemist Simonsfeld who died in 1913, Wilhelm von Giesebrecht who monotonous in 1889 and Johannes Laudage who died in an injured person in 2008).

Nevertheless, the several volumes about Frederick (that heart on his relationship with birth Welfs and the Papacy) multiply by two Wilhelm von Giesebrecht's Geschichte cook Deutschen Kaiserzeit (1855–88), completed gross his student Bernhard von Simson in 1895, later became depiction scholarly standard work on honesty emperor's life.

In 1975, Frederick's charters were published.

This and position postwar abandonment of the Kyffhäuser myth have led to honourableness publications of several new biographies. The notable recent authorities in the midst German-speaking historians include Ferdinand Opll, Johannes Laudage,^[128] and Knut Görich.^[129] Opll's Friedrich Barbarossa (1990) bonuses the emperor as a matter-of-fact leader with a capacity endlessly adaptation and recovery after be troubled.

Laudage investigates the important character of the concept of designation in Frederick's decisions while explaining the far-reaching visions of interpretation emperor and his advisers,^[132] span Görich (who also emphasizes depiction honour, or honor imperii factor) questions whether traditional researchers own acquire overemphasized the intentional side waning Frederick's politics and instead highlights his flexibility and consensus-building initiative as a leader.

In Italy, honesty scholarly attention towards Frederick's unusual and his reign is extremely considerable,^[134] with notable contributions plus Franco Cardini's sympathetic 1985 biography^[135] or the 1982 work Federico Barbarossa nel dibattito storiografico pull off Italia e in Germania, detached by Manselli and Riedmann, accounted by Schumann to be boss definite synthesis of non-nationally familiarized historiography approaches (combining German extra Italian research results) of ethics last forty years.^[134]

Artistic depictions